Issues and Debates Flashcards
(42 cards)
gender bias: what is universiality?
This means that a theory can be applied to everyone, regardless of gender and culture.
gender bias: how might a gender bias occur?
male sample: conducting research on an all-male sample and then generalising the findings to women.
male behaviour as standard: if the behaviour of a female differs from that of men then the behaviour is seen as a deviation from the norm.
biological difference emphasis: explanations for behaviour that emphasise the biology of an individual ignore the social and external factors and therefore are liable to infer there is a difference between the behaviour of the sexes, even if this may not be true.
gender bias: what are the 3 types of gender bias?
alpha bias
beta bias
andocentrism
gender bias: what is an alpha bias and give an example?
this exaggerates the differences between men and women: devaluing one gender in comparison to the other.
the psychodynamic approach: Freud believed females form a weaker super-ego than males.
Sexual Selection: sexual promiscuity is biologically determined in males, but not females.
gender bias: what is a beta bias and give an example?
this ignores or minimises the differences between men and women. it is assumed that findings from men will equally apply to women.
fight or flight: research is conducted on males and applied to females; however, some psychologists argue ‘tend and befriend’ fits females more appropriately.
gender bias: what is andocentrism and give an example?
the focus is on men and women are neglected. most of the contribution to psychological research is by men; both the participants and the researchers. this can result in alpha/beta bias.
gender bias: evaluation
Gender bias in psychological research has significant implications, particularly in perpetuating harmful stereotypes and affecting women’s mental health. One of the primary issues is that gender bias leads to inaccurate assumptions about female behavior, which can result in negative stereotypes. For instance, sexual selection theories often suggest that males are naturally promiscuous, while women who exhibit similar behavior are seen as going “against their nature,” reinforcing gendered expectations about sexuality. This type of bias not only distorts our understanding of gender differences but also supports double standards, where male behavior is seen as the norm and female behavior is judged harshly when it deviates. Such bias is evident in clinical settings as well, where women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression but underdiagnosed with conditions like schizophrenia, demonstrating how androcentrism can lead to misdiagnosis and harmful consequences for women’s mental health.
Our increased understanding of gender bias in psychological research has led to recommendations aimed at minimizing such biases and improving the accuracy of studies. Feminist scholars, like Worrell, propose several research criteria to ensure that investigations are non-gender biased. Worrell suggests that women should be studied in their natural settings, where they function, and that researchers should collaborate with participants to explore variables that are personally relevant to them. Additionally, she advocates for studying diverse samples, including variations in age, socio-economic class, and other factors. These recommendations are essential because they encourage a more inclusive approach, where women’s experiences and behaviours are understood within their unique social contexts rather than through male-centred norms. By applying these guidelines, psychological research can reduce gender bias and improve the accuracy of our understanding of both male and female behaviour, ultimately contributing to more equitable and comprehensive findings.
culture bias: what is culture bias?
this is the tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions.
culture bias: universiality and culture bias
critics suggest that mainstream psychology has ignored culture as an important influence on behaviour and has therefore assumed that research conducted on samples in Western cultures can be applied all over the world.
culture bias: what are the 2 types of culture bias?
ethnocentrism
cultural relativism
culture bias: what is ethnocentrism and give an example?
this refers to seeing things from the point of view of our own culture. we take our beliefs, customs, and behaviours as superior and normal. this may lead to prejudice:
alpha bias: own culture is considered better.
beta bias: their world view is the only view. ‘imposed etic’
in Ainsworth’s Strange Situation, secure attachments are characterised by the infant showing moderate separation anxiety when left alone. this led to the misinterpretation of child-rearing practices in other cultures. e.g. german mothers were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging the independence of the child.
culture bias: what is cultural relativism and give an example?
behaviour cannot be judge properly unless its in the context of the culture from which it originates. when studying in another culture, we need to understand the way that culture sees the world.
alpha bias: we overlook universals
beta bias: minimalist cultural differences.
interactional synchrony is universal, Mead stated that gender differences were due to culture. Men in all culture studies were more aggressive than women.
statistical infrequency in a way of defining abnormality. what may be statistically infrequent in one culture may be statistically frequent in others. e.g. hearing voices in UK compared to Ghana.
culture bias: evaluation
Ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s own culture or ethnicity is superior, can be challenged by the development of Indigenous psychologies that recognize the unique cultural contexts of different groups. One such challenge comes from Afrocentrism, which argues that psychological theories should be centred around African values and experiences rather than applying European-centric models universally. Afrocentrism is grounded in the idea that all black people have ancestral roots in Africa, and therefore, psychological theories should reflect African cultural values, traditions, and worldviews. By rejecting the idea that European values should be applied universally to human behaviour, Afrocentrism highlights how such assumptions can marginalize and devalue those who do not share European backgrounds. As a result, Afrocentric theories have been developed to better represent the psychological needs and realities of people of African descent, offering a more culturally relevant and inclusive perspective. This approach challenges ethnocentric views and promotes a broader, more diverse understanding of human behaviour, encouraging the development of psychological theories that are specific and applicable to various cultural contexts around the world.
Bias in research methods can lead to cultural bias, as psychological studies often fail to include participants from diverse cultural backgrounds. One major issue is that research in psychology disproportionately focuses on participants from Western, often American, cultures, limiting the generalizability of findings. Smith and Bond found that European textbooks on social psychology contained 66% of studies conducted in the United States, while only 2% of studies were from non-European or non-American sources. Additionally, Sears discovered that many psychological studies rely heavily on undergraduate participants, most of whom are psychology students, often from Western cultures. This suggests that the research base is heavily skewed toward Western perspectives, making it unrepresentative of global populations. As a result, psychological findings may not accurately reflect the experiences, behaviours, or values of people from diverse cultural backgrounds. To address this cultural bias, researchers must include more diverse participants from various cultural groups, ensuring that psychological theories and findings are more inclusive and applicable on a global scale.
freewill and determinism debate
the freewill/determinism debate is the consideration of whether our behaviour is within our conscious control or governed by internal/external factors.
freewill and determism: what is freewill?
freewill is when an individual is capable of self-determiniation, we have an active role in controlling our behaviour. we are free to choose and arent acting in response to internal or external factors. The humanistic approach argues self-determination is a necessary part of human behaviour as it allows us to take responsibility for our actions, and have personal growth.
freewill and determinism: what is determinism?
determinism believes that ‘freewill is merely an illusion’ and that our behaviour is dictated by internal and external forces that we have no control over and as a result, our behaviour can be predicted. there are 2 types of determinism:
hard determinism: the view that all behaviour can be predicted and there is no freewill.
soft determinism: allows some element of free will, some things are dictated by other forces, but some things aren’t.
freewill and determinism: types of determinism in psychology and give an example
biological: research into the human genome produces evidence of genetics influencing our behaviour. our behaviours and physical characteristics are determined by our genes. E.g. intelligence research has identified a particular gene in people who are classified as high in intelligence.
environmental: behaviourists believe that all behaviour is caused through conditioning. our behaviour is shaped by environmental events and agents of socialisation: parents, teachers, etc. e.g. development of phobias, the development of attachments
psychic: Freud believed freewill to be an allusion; behaviour is due to biological drives and instincts and we are driven by unconscious thoughts. e.g. Freud’s theory of personality is a mix of innate drive and early experiences. behaviour is driven by the libido, focusing on the erogenous zones. when a child becomes frustrated and fixated on that zone, it dominates their adult personality.
freewill and determinism: scientific determinism and the emphasis on casual explanations
science indicates that every event in the universe has a cause which can be explained using general laws. lab experiments allows researchers to stimulate the conditions of the test tube, and remove all other extrenous variables in an attempt to control and predict human behaviour.
determinism requires causation and with causation comes determinism. if we can empirically test and see this is the case, we have found a casual relationship. however, it is rare that X causes Y in 100% of cases, meaning something else must also have an influence (freewill).
freewill and determinism: freewill evaluation
Skinner’s claim that free will is an illusion suggests that human behaviour is determined by past reinforcement experiences, not an autonomous choice. Skinner, a behaviourist, argued that individuals’ actions are shaped by external stimuli and reinforcement, rather than an inherent ability to make free choices. He emphasized that all behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment, implying that free will does not truly exist. This perspective is further complicated when considering cultural influences on the concept of free will. In individualistic societies, self-determination is often seen as a core value, where individuals are believed to make choices based on personal desires. However, in collectivist societies, behaviour tends to be directed by group needs, indicating that free will might not hold the same significance in different cultural contexts. This suggests that free will could be more of a social construct rather than a universal human trait. Ultimately, Skinner’s view, combined with the cultural argument, challenges the universality of free will, suggesting that it may not be a ‘real’ concept but instead shaped by both environmental factors and societal norms.
Research on free will, such as Libet’s experiment, has suggested that our conscious awareness of actions may not be the true initiator of those actions, challenging the notion of free will.
In Libet’s famous experiment, he measured brain activity related to motor movement when participants were asked to move their finger at will. He found that the brain’s motor areas became active before the participants were consciously aware of their intention to move, which seemed to suggest that the brain initiated the movement before the individual’s conscious decision. This finding raises questions about the role of conscious awareness in voluntary actions. However, some researchers have critiqued Libet’s conclusion, suggesting that the brain activity detected prior to movement may not reflect the initiation of the movement itself, but rather a “readiness to act.” This distinction implies that while brain activity precedes conscious awareness, it does not necessarily negate the possibility of free will; it could merely indicate that the brain prepares for action before the individual consciously decides to execute it. While Libet’s research challenges the traditional view of free will, alternative interpretations of the brain activity suggest that there may still be room for conscious intention to play a role, highlighting the complexity of the free will debate.
freewill and determinism: determinism evaluation
The idea that biological and environmental determinism alone cannot fully explain human behaviour is supported by studies on identical twins, suggesting that an interactionist approach may offer a more accurate explanation. Studies comparing identical twins have shown high concordance rates for intelligence, with a reported 80% concordance, and 48% for schizophrenia. This means that if one twin has schizophrenia, there is a 48% chance that the other twin will develop it, indicating a genetic influence. However, these figures also demonstrate that genetics alone do not determine the development of schizophrenia, as the concordance rate is far from 100%. The fact that the concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins is only 48% suggests that environmental factors also play a significant role in the development of the disorder. This finding implies that both biological and environmental factors contribute to human behavior, rather than one being the sole cause. The interactionist approach, which considers the influence of both genes and environment, better reflects the complexity of human behaviour and development. Therefore, rather than adopting a purely deterministic view, an interactionist approach that integrates both biological and environmental influences provides a more comprehensive and realistic understanding of human behaviour.
While physical sciences often adhere to determinism, applying this to human behaviour oversimplifies the complexity of psychological processes and is unrealistic. In the physical sciences, it is often assumed that events are determined by prior causes, but even there, many relationships are understood to be probabilistic rather than strictly deterministic. In other words, while certain factors can increase the likelihood of an event occurring, they do not guarantee a specific outcome.
This probabilistic nature of cause-and-effect is particularly relevant in psychology, where human behaviour is influenced by a range of variables, including cognition, emotion, and environment. Unlike non-human animals, whose behaviour tends to be more rigid and determined by instinct, human behaviour is far more complex and flexible, shaped by social, cultural, and personal factors. Trying to apply a deterministic formula to human behaviour oversimplifies these influences and ignores the individuality and adaptability of humans. Therefore, while determinism may work in physical sciences, it is unrealistic and inadequate as an approach to understanding the fluid and multifaceted nature of humanbehaviourr in psychological research.
the nature/nurture debate: what is it?
this debate in psychology is concerned with the extent to which particular aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited (genetic) or acquired (learning) characteristics.
nature is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors (neural). it may be studied with the use of twin, adoption, or family studies.
nurture is the influence of external factors after contraception, and behaviour is a result of learning.
the nature/nurture debate evaluation
Nature and nurture cannot be separated; they both contribute to our development. For example, phenylketonuria is an inherited condition that prevents an amino acid from being metabolised, resulting in brain damage. However, if detected at birth, the child can have a diet of phenylalanine. Therefore, this condition is nature (genetic) but can be controlled through nurture (environment), both are contributing factors. this therefore stresses the importance of the interactions approach, understanding the importance of both. the diathesis-stress model allows us to understand nature/nurture as it explains how an individual’s nature is only expressed in certain aspects of nurture.
holism and reductionism: what is reductionism?
reductionism is the belief that behaviour is best explained by breaking down a complex phenomenon into more simple components. it believes that complex phenomena are best understood in terms of simpler levels of explanation.
holism and reductionism: what is biological reductionism with an example?
Biological psychology reduces behaviour to the actions of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, genetics, etc. By doing so, we gain a greater understanding of how components affect us.
example: schizophrenia can be caused by excessive activity of dopamine. typical antipsychotics block the neurotransmitter from binding to D2 receptors.
