Issues and Debates Flashcards
(36 cards)
1
Q
Define Androcentrism & give an example from psychology
A
- Research based only on males which is then used as the standard or expected norm for both genders
- Any bhvr that deviates from this ‘norm’ would be seen as abnormal or inferior
- Based on belief of universality
- Leads to female bhvr being misunderstood or pathologised (taken as sign of psychological instability)
- Example: Milgram’s research
- Can lead to beta bias
2
Q
Define alpha bias & give an example from psychology
A
- Research/theories misrepresent bhvrs as it exaggerates differences between males and females, reinforcing gender stereotypes and usually devaluing women as they are not often seen as the norm.
- Example: Theory of sexual selection; Buss’ Research
3
Q
Define beta bias & give an example from psychology
A
- Research/theories misrepresent bhvr as they ignore or minimise differences between males and females.
- Important aspects of female experience are ignored, so limits any conclusions drawn.
- Often occurs when female ppts aren’t included in sample and it’s assumed conclusions can be applied to all genders
- Example: Fight or flight response claimed to be universal response of stress but research has found women are more likely to “tend and befriend”
4
Q
AO3 on gender bias
A
:( Contribute to gender discrimination: based on biological app. which states gender differences are innate and therefore universal. Could lead to stereotypes like women being dependent/caregivers and men being aggressive/providers being justified. Leads to gender discrimination in the workplace.
:( Can affect conclusions made in research: Maccoby and Jacklin presented findings on several gender studies which showed girls have superior verbal ability while boys have better spatial ability; suggested these differences are hard wired into brain before birth and became widely reported and seen as facts. However, Joel et al. used brain scanning techniques and found no differences in brain structures or processing and believed theory popularised as it fitted gender stereotypes of girls being “Speakers” and boys “Doers”.
-> Discuss: Should still do research on brain differences, but we shouldn’t exaggerate findings. Research demonstrated women better at multitasking compared to males due to women’s brains having stronger connections between left and right hemispheres, so there is some facts showing males and females have different brain structures.
:) Clear understanding that there are gender differences and universality not possible. However, it’s impossible to research through completely objective eyes as everyone has gender and unconscious prejudices. To overcome this, researchers should give consideration to the matter or gender bias in research. Zimbardo’s study used an all male sample, but was only looking at american prisons, where majority of guards and prisoners are male - important not to generalise to everyone. Recognition important in ensuring effects of gender bias are minimised when doing psychological research and generalising theories of bhvr to both genders.
5
Q
Define Culture bias
A
- When psychological studies or theories ignore cultural differences assuming their findings can be generalised globally.
- Much research done in Western universities meaning results only applicable to that culture.
- Bias researchers have assumed that their culture is the norm.
- Can lead to ethnocentrism
- Example: Asch’s study only done on American individuals - individualist culture so low conformity; may have had alternative results from a country that’s collectivist as these individuals may be more concerned with group’s beliefs, so difficult to generalise.
6
Q
AO3 culture bias
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Due to emigration into different countries, the terms individualistic and collectivist cultures are outdated, as now there are mixtures of these cultures within countries - Lacks temporal validity.
7
Q
Define ethnocentrism
A
- Assumption that one ethnic group is superior to another, or to all ethnic groups, and emphasising the importance of one’s own culture.
- Leads to belief that bhvrs of their ethnic group/culture is the norm and others seen as abnormal or strange
- Example: Ainsworth’s strange situation: Secure attachment seen as the norm & superior attachment style. Other parenting styles, which are the norm in other countries/cultures, are seen as abnormal. E.g. avoidant attachment in Germany seen as norm
8
Q
AO3 on ethnocentrism
A
- Can lead to racism as psychologists publish research concluding that one culture is superior.
- E.g. in WW1, army recruitment IQ test was based on western information, so eastern Europeans and African Americans that scored lower were labelled as feeble minded - created stereotype that these people are mentally unfit.
- Led to discriminatory immigration policies - and can lead to them getting sterilised so they can’t have children
9
Q
Define cultural relativism
A
- A good thing!! - DON’T GENERALISE
- Opinion that there is no right or wrong bhvr and that it’s important to consider individual’s bhvr within their culture before making judgements.
- This is because social norms are culturally relative as what’s considered acceptable in one culture may be unacceptable in others.
- Example: Definitions of abnormality lack cultural relativism: some cultures may see hearing voices as normal e.g. some African cultures see it as a sign from a higher power
10
Q
AO3 on cultural relativism
A
- Some things may be innate - not everything is culturally relative
- Interactional synchrony and reciprocity have been found to be universal components of attachment - can’t assume cultural relativism
- Need to think about relative contribution of nature and nurture
11
Q
Examples of 3 types of hard determinism
A
- Biological determinism: Individual’s bhvr controlled by internal physiological factors e.g. genetics, neuroanatomy, neurochemistry etc. making bhvr inevitable.
-> Example: Biological approach in OCD states low serotonin inevitably leads to compulsions and obsessions in OCD. - Environmental determinism: Individual’s bhvr controlled by external factors e.g. operant and classical conditioning, making bhvr inevitable.
-> Example: Behaviourist approach in phobias states learning to associate a stimulus with anxiety results in development in phobia - Psychic determinism: Individual’s bhvr controlled by internal factors such as structure of personality and external factors such as childhood experiences, making bhvr inevitable.
-> Psychodynamic approach states an overactive id leads to impulsive personality and overactive superego leads to an anxious personality
12
Q
define soft determinism and give examples
A
Individual’s bhvr in controlled by int/ext factors, with some element of free will. e.g. Cognitive approach & Social Learning Theory
- In CBT, individuals can choose to identify and dispute irrational thoughts and turn them into rational ones
13
Q
Define Free will and give examples
A
Individual has choice over their behaviour and can choose to reject and int/ext factors affecting bhvr. e.g. humanistic approach
14
Q
Define hard determinism and give examples
A
Behaviour entirely controlled by int/ext factors, making bhvr inevitable, rejecting any role of free will.
-> Example: Beck’s negative triad states a negative schema and irrational thoughts of self, world and future inevitably lead to depression
15
Q
What is the scientific emphasis on causal explanations?
A
- Causal relationship - means cause and effect - stems from determinism
- Causal relationships can be established from controlled methods - lab exp and controlled obs
- If DV changes when all extraneous variables are controlled, IV is the cause, so cause and effect can be established
16
Q
AO3 on Determinism vs Free will
A
- Libet et al.: ppts chose random moment to flick their wrist while he measured activity in the brain (readiness potential). Ppts had to say when they felt conscious will to move. Found that the unconscious brain activity leading up to conscious decision came around half a second before ppt consciously decided to move. Could mean there’s no free will in actions as they get determined by unconscious brain activity before conscious decision to carry out the action occurs - Free will is just an illusion. However, the individual can still choose not to carry out the action via conscious decision making - so there is an element of free will - e.g. in aggression there’s conscious awareness in carrying out aggressive acts.
- Determinism can be a good thing as it has practical applications in treatments: e.g. low serotonin said to lead to symptoms of OCD such as compulsions and obsessions. Taking SSRIs can balance serotonin levels and lead to reduced anxiety, leading to reduced compulsions and obsessions.
- Use of determinism IRL inconsistent w/ legal system: Doesn’t use hard determinism as it hods criminals accountable for their actions, meaning it does take into account some element of free will. If hard determinism had a place in legal system, it would be unfair to place criminals in jail and hold them accountable for bhvr as they would be determined by int/ext factors making bhvr inevitable e.g. people can’t control whether they inherit MAOA-L gene variant.
- Free will seen as more positive stance than determinism: Allows people to believe they have a choice over bhvr, which may have positive effect on mental health. e.g. research suggest that people who have an internal LOC, believing they have high influence over bhvr, tend to be more mentally healthy compared to those with an external LOC, who were found to be at greater risk of developing depression. Suggests even if we don’t have free will, thinking we do can have positive effects on mind and bhvr.
17
Q
Define holism
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proposes that we should examine individuals’ complex bhvr by taking into consideration all aspects of their experience and context, including culture
e.g. humanism explains complex human bhvr by focusing on broader experiences and circumstances(culture and socioeconomic background)
18
Q
Define reductionism
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Examines complex human bhvr by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts. e.g. Biological approach explains human bhvr by reducing down into simple basic biological units - genes, neurotransmitters
19
Q
Define biological reductionism
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Explaining complex human bhvr by reducing down to basic biological systems e.g. genetics, physiology of the body, brain or biochemistry.
e.g. biological approach in aggression: inheriting MAOA-L gene variant leads to aggression
20
Q
Define Environmental reductionism
A
Simplifies complex human bhvr down to learning through stimulus-response association i.e. classical conditioning
e.g. Phobias: learning to associate stimulus w/ anxiety leads to development of phobias
21
Q
Levels of explanation of reductionism vs holism - from most holistic to most reductionist
A
level 1: Social and Cultural Exp: Humanism
level 2: Psychological Exp: Psychodynamic, SLT, Cognitive, Behaviourist
level 3: Biological exp: Biological
22
Q
AO3 for reductionism vs holism
A
- Holism praised for explaining aspects of social bhvr which only arise in group settings and can’t be understood at level of individual group member (reductionist). E.g. Asch’s study: Changed group size & measured influence of increasing group size on conformity - when group size increased, conformity of individual increased - can only study at holistic level as there’s no specific “conformity gene”.
- Reductionist explanations scientific: Reduces humna bhvr down to simple basic units by carrying out lab exp., controlled obs etc, to establish causal rs between human bhvr and IVs - easy to measure basic units. E.g. Low serotonin leads to OCD - measured through urine tests. Reductionist approach good as it can help create treatments e.g. SSRIs used to reduce compulsions and obsessions in OCD - helps people in the real world.
- Oversimplifies complex phenomena: Reduces internal validity of the approach and its explanation of human bhvr. E.g. Biological approach states sz caused by genetics(oversimplified), however interactionist approach states that both diathesis nature e.g. genetic, and stress nurture e.g. family dysfunction, needed to lead to sz. Can lead to psychologists losing sight of bhvr in context, limiting reductionist approach in psychology.
23
Q
Mintro for nature and nurture
A
Discusses whether bhvr is due to nature(genes) or nurture(environment and experiences)
24
Q
Define nature
A
- Approach taken by Nativist psychologists
- Believe in importance of heredity(nature) - idea that human bhvrs are innate and passed on from one generation to the next via genetics.
- Example: Bowlby: Babies born with social releasers - born with the innate need to form attachment to survive
25
Define nurture
- Approach taken by Empiricist psychologists
- Argue that the mind is a 'blank slate' at birth and bhvr is shaped by environment, learning and experience.
- Example: Attachments formed through the bhvrst approach through classical conditioning where behaviour is learnt by associating mother with milk
26
Define interactionism
- Takes a stance between extreme nature and extreme nurture debate. Argues that both genetics and environment play a part in human bhvr - diathesis stress model
- Diathesis is predisposition to certain bhvr that individual has from birth and is inherited. This is just a predisposition and has potential to be triggered later in life by stressor in environment.
- Example: Person may have inherited polygenic sz sequences from parent, but need a stressor e.g. family dysfunction to trigger their sz.
- States that if a person is not born with the diathesis(predisposition), no amount of stress can trigger onset of particular bhvr/illness.
27
AO3 on nature vs nurture
- Twin studies: Research into concordance rates of twins show that the nature side of the debate can't be a full explanation of human bhvr. This is because concordance rates aren't 100%, so other factors from environment must play a role in development of illnesses such as sz. (MZ: 48%, DZ: 17%) - supports interactionist approach instead.
- Adoption studies are important: Allow researchers to study individuals where nature and nurture are separated. E.g. Tienari followed up 19000 adopted children w/ schizophrenic mothers and compared to adopted children w/ no genetic risk. Child-rearing styles of adopted children observed. Children brought up in families w/ lots of conflict and low empathy more likely to get sz but only w/ genetic vulnerability.
-> Discuss: However, Constructivism goes against this as it states people construct environment based on their genetics - niche picking - where individuals choose environment that matches genetic predisposition. In tienari's study: Children w/ genetic predisposition have more negative, self-depricating thoughts - paranoid delusions and withdraw - avolition
- Practical applications: Most psychologists have come to the agreement that interactionist approach most probable. For example, not inevitable that someone with a family history of depression will inherit it, but it's more likely due to their genetic vulnerability. People with diathesis can be provided with counselling or be monitored to minimise risk of developing the disorder.
28
Define idiographic
- Sees individuals as unique, each w their own subjective experiences, motivations and values.
- Associated w methods that produce qualitative data such as case studies, unstructured interviews, and other self-report methods
- Aim of approach is to gain insight into person's unique way of viewing the world - don't form general laws
- Example: Humanistic approach: Each person has their own subjective experience - don't believe in generalising data to wider population - use unstructured interviews to gain in depth data
29
Define nomothetic
- Main aim is to produce general laws of human bhvr(cause and effect)
- Mainly associated w methods that produce large amounts of quantitative data and that are scientific within psychology(Experiments).
- Involve large samples of people representative of the population to establish laws - easier to generalise
- Often use sampling methods such as random or stratified sampling to give a more representative sample.
- Example: All individuals have an SCN - endogenous pacemaker that controls sleep-wake cycle.
30
AO3 on Idiographic vs nomothetic
- Idiographic approach lacks scientific methods: Could lack internal validity as it uses methods such as case studies and self reports which tend to be subjective and open to bias. Unlike nomothetic which uses objective and empirical methods such as controlled lab exp and obs which can be used to establish causal rs on human bhvr. Lower credibility of idiographic approach compared to nomothetic which may be more respected by scientists and general public due to factual and scientific nature.
-> Discuss: Triangulation: Use of numerous methods - taking into account both nomothetic and idiographic approach. Allow researchers to cross-reference wide variety of quantitative and qualitative data to gain in depth and more objective results on sample they're studying.
- Each approach is beneficial in some studies: Nomothetic: Peterson and Peterson, Miller - Scientific - Allow cause-and-effect to be established - laws on bhvr can be created. Idiographic: Clive Wearing, KF - In-depth and unique experience to gain deeper understanding into human bhvr. Researchers should aim to use triangulation when studying phenomena e.g. the cognitive approach makes use of both - increases validity of the approach unlike humanism(idiographic) and behaviourist(nomethetic)
- Nomothetic approach lacks understanding of an individual: e.g. quantitative data - 1% of population has sz. Idiographic approach may be better in people who have been diagnosed with mental illnesses - not all treatments work on everyone e.g. people w/ no families can't do family therapy & treatments need to be based on individual's unique experiences that led to sz.
31
What is socially sensitive research?
Sieber & Stanley describe socially sensitive research as: "Studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in research or the class of people represented by research"
32
What are the ethical consequences?
Ethical issues: ppts in studies protected by guidelines in place by British psychological society e.g. protection from harm - for ppts
Ethical implications: For groups represented in the research, what will be the impact on them/the group they represent - for target population
33
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
If you label someone with something, they'll start acting like it e.g. if a certain race keeps getting labelled as aggressive they may start acting like it. - occurs as a result of discrimination - caused by misuse of finding by media through bias - fraudulent research
34
Examples of ethical implications of research studies
- Intelligence & IQ: Early research found African-Americans scored lowest on IQ scores. Used to inform racist discourse about the genetic inferiority of certain ethnic and cultural groups. minorities deemed as 'mentally unfit' and 'feeble-minded' in comparison to white majority. Led to discriminatory immigration policies and sterilisation of some individuals. - imposed etic. However, research has shown using culturally relative IQ tests showed no cultural differences, showing clear culture bias with tools measuring intelligence and the consequences socially sensitive research can have.
- Maternal deprivation: Mothers encouraged to stay at home and look after children. Blames the mother for negative consequences on children, which can have negative implications on mental health of women to fulfil the maternal role. Makes the father feel as though his role is not important - could lead to judgement and discrimination of women who chose to work instead of spending time with kids.
- IQ in education: Psychologist named Burt published research from twin studies which suggested intelligence is highly heritable and could be detected at age 11. Major policy changes in UK education system. At end of primary school, all students in country sat 11+ exam to determine if they can go to a grammar school or state school. Which one a student attended significantly influenced later life opportunities. However, it was later found much of his research was fake and he was publicly discredited, however 11+ still exists today how public policies can be influenced by socially sensitive research.
35
What are the ethical implications and how do you deal with them?
- Findings may negatively impact psychological well being of participants in study: Submit research to ethics committee before research takes place to ensure wellbeing looked after. DIPC
- What is being investigated might allow others to justify inappropriate discrimination and prejudice: Consider effects of findings before research, weigh pros and cons, say correlation =/ causation.
- Findings could be used by government to create legislation and policies: consider impact on society before publishing, put through peer review - check conclusions portrayed in bias-free way
- Findings may be presented as objective but have fraudulent methods and therefore findings and conclusions are invalid: Put through peer review to check for bias, ensure research objective and well-tested measures
36
AO3 on ethical implications in research
- Can have positive impacts on individuals and society:
Kinsey report was based on interviews with over 5000 men and 6000 women about sexual bhvr and concluded homosexual is a normal variant in human bhvr. Led to homosexuality being removed from the DSM-1 in 1973. Demonstrates the importance of researching socially sensitive topics as it can help reduce prejudice and discrimination towards particular groups in society.
-> Discuss: Not positive for all social groups e.g. Bowlby's research, race and IQ.
- Practical applications: Research into social class and IQ has shown children from underprivileged backgrounds have lower IQ compared to middle class families and this led to underachievement in education. This led to educational programmes have been developed to support children from disadvantaged backgrounds e.g. SureStart programmes and educational TV shows(Sesame street). Parents don't have enough time to spend time w/ kids, so can instead watch educational TV shows which are beneficial in society.
- Researchers should still do socially sensitive research: this would address some of society's most pressing issues and policy questions. Ensure findings are presented w/ respect, make sure valid research methods are used; go through peer review.
-> Discuss: American Psychological Association reported ethical committees approve 95% of non-sensitive proposals that didn't include ethical problems whereas 'sensitive' proposals only got approved 50% of the time - even though psychologists want to investigate, they don't get approved to go further. Psychologist associations shouldn't shy away from this research as they have a responsibility to research these to gain greater understanding into human bhvr and stop discrimination
