issues and debates Flashcards
(21 cards)
gender bias AO1
Universality- theories applied to all despite differences
gender bias- reasearch/ theories that offers a view that does not justifiably represent the experiences of men and women.
One gender
This bias leads to differential treatment of men and women based on stereotypes
Alpha bias- attempt to exaggerate differences between genders.
e.g. Freud argued girls don’t suffer Oedipus so don’t identify with mothers as much as boys with fathers so have weaker superego.”
Beta Bias- attempt to underestimate differences between genders.
eg fight or flight + research carried out on males due to less variation of hormones yet still assumed females react the same
Androcentrism: men’s behaviour seen as the standard.
Bias: tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way to others.
gender bias strengths
✓ ways to avoid gender bias.
Worrall and Remer put forward a criteria to avoid gender bias:
eg women should be studied with meaningful real-life context.
less gender bias in lab-based research
✓ understanding gender bias
leads to reflexivity.
researchers don’t see it as a problem but rather embrace it as a crucial part of research.
reflexivity may lead to greater awareness of bias in shaping future research.
gender bias limitations
X-Damaging consequences
creates misleading assumptions about women behaviour
and provides scientific justification to deny women opportunities
not only methodological problem but impacts women’s lives.
X-promotes sexism in research process
lack of women at a senior research level means women are not reflected in research questions asked
Promoting institutional sexism that creates bias in research
culture bias AO1
Universality Theories applied to all despite differences
Cultural bias: overlooking cultural differences by looking at behaviour from the perspective of one’s own culture
Ethnocentrism: judging other cultures by standards of one’s own culture
assumptions that one culture is superior to others
can lead to assumptions
eg. Strange Situation ‘securely attached’ American infants were misinterpreting other cultures eg. Germany with insecure avoidant because they encourage independent behaviour
Imposed etic: a test devised in one culture used to explain behaviour in other cultures eg. conformity research
Cultural relativism: human behaviour can be understood within specific cultural contexts
Bias: tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way to others.
cultural bias strengths
✓ culture bias is getting recognised
most researchers give due consideration to these matters
recognition that bias can occur is important in ensuring the negative effect it can have is minimised
✓-cultural differences are declining
Takano & Osaka: 14 out of 15 studies compared US and Japan found no evidence of individualism + collectivism.
cultural bias less of an issue in more recent research.
clutural bias limitations
X-many most influential studies are culturally biased.
eg Milgram, Asch.
This suggests understanding of topics should only be applied to individualistic cultures only
X Ethnocentric research assumes that all members of an ethnic group are all the same.
Denies that there are individual differences
free will vs determinism AO1
Free will: idea that humans can make choices and behaviour is not determined by biological/external forces.
Determinism: individuals’ behaviour is caused by internal/external forces.
Varying degrees:
Hard determinism: not compatible with free will, all behavior is controlled and free will is an illusion.
Soft determinism: Behaviours may be predictable but also restricted free will.
Biological determinism: behaviour controlled by physiological, genetic and hormonal processes.
biological approach.
Environmental determinism: Behaviour shaped by previous experiences conditioning.
Behaviourist approach.
Psychic determinism: Behaviour caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflict.
psychodynamic approach
free will vs determinism strengths
determinism is constant with aims of science
idea that behaiviour follows laws helps psychology be seen as a science
creadibility for pscyhology
free will has face validity
free will may be liberating in terms of not accpeting ones fate
humans believe that they have free will and it is beneficial
free will vs determinism limitations
determinism is not consistant with legal system
in court offenders are held responsible for their actions
the main principle is that offenders exercise thier free will
free will cant be falsified
psychology is a science so free will is at odds with the dicipline
argument that it cant be measured so its not real
nature nurture debate AO1
Nature-nurture debate: extent to which aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited or acquired characteristics.
Heredity: genetic transmission of both mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another.
Nature: behaviour is a product of innate biological or genetic factors.
eg. concordance rates in twins of having schizophrenia: 40.4% MZ, 7.4% DZ.
Nurture: view that behaviour is the product of environmental influences.
Interactionist approach: several levels of explanation necessary to explain behaviour, ranging from lower (biological) to higher (social and cultural).
Diathesis-stress model: interactionist account of behaviour.
used to explain schizophrenia
nature-nurture debate strengths
recent times have moved away from argument from extereme stances
general aknowledgment that an interactionisnt stance is more appropriate
argument is now based on the relative influence of nature and nurture
real world apprications
OCD is highly heritable.
can inherit it but also experiences influences of the environment
theory is important at a practical level
nature-nurture debate limitations
research on relative heritability varies greatly
some people are more succeptible to enviromental influences than others
cosensus is hard to reach
research suggests nature and nurture cannot be pulled appart
Plomin (1994) people create their own nurture by actively and selectively selecting environments that are appropriate for their nature
Does not make sense to look at evidence of either nature or nurture
holism vs reductionist AO1
holism- suggests psychologists should only study an indivisible system, rather than its constituent parts.
Socio-cultural level- explanation based on understanding of social/ cultural enviroment
pychological level (cognative)- explanation based on info processing
psychological level (behavioural)- explanation based on learning processes
biological level- explanation based on biological influences
Reductionism- The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts.
holism vs reductionist strengths
biological reductionsim helps facilitate biological therapires eg drugs
can help people suffering from mental health processes
improved quality of life- impact on ecomony
some behaviours can only be understood at a higher level of explanation
eg. effects of conformity to socail roled]s can only be understood by observing participant as indivduals
holism vs reductionist limitations
holistic research is hard to use as it is too complex
eg too many factors that impact depression is hard to rule which one is most influential
holistic accounts lack practical value
reductionist explanations mea that other explantiations are ignored and underplayed
eg mantal illness could lead to a reoccurance of the issue as not all factors have been considered
Idiographic and Nomothetic AO1
Idiographic approach- focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding
behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour.
-People are studied independently, and their own experiences, motivations and values considered.
-Qualitative research methods such as case studies, unstructured interviews and thematic analysis are favoured. This allows an in-depth insight into human behaviour eg humanistic approach
Nomothetic approach- law’. This approach aims to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws.
-The general laws provide a benchmark against which people can be compared, classified, and measured. This allows future behaviour to be predicted and controlled. This links to the aims of
science. eg behaviourism
The Overlap- The psychodynamic uses idiographic methods such as case studies like Little Hans to collect detail about people’s lives. However, universal laws such as personality development and the psycho-sexual stages
Idiographic and Nomothetic strengths
It is important to identify the idiographic and nomothetic approaches because they are distinct.
Each is appropriate in different situations, for different research aims.
For instance, in attachment research, Schaffer’s stages describe general stages of development, whereas case studies of extreme neglect highlight the subjective experience of never having formed an attachment.
An idiographic method, such as a case study, is often the ‘seed’ that prompts an idea for further research.
It is looking at behaviour or a phenomenon in detail from an idiographic, in-depth perspective that leads to research ideas.
ideas. Inevitably, though, a nomothetic stance will be adopted at some point.
There is also the sense that the idiographic and nomothetic approaches may just be two ends of a continuum and it is better to use them in this way.
Millon (1995) explains that when diagnosing personality disorders, for example, clinicians begin with general nomothetic criteria, then use this to focus on the individual and their unique needs.
Idiographic and Nomothetic limitation
A nomothetic stance means that theories often adopt a one-size-fits-all approach.
This makes them inappropriate for some.
some. This argument can be applied to ‘treatments’, which means that people are forced to use interventions that may have only moderate success for them.
Ethical Implications AO1
Ethical guidelines- A set of principles set out by the BPS to help psychologists behave with honesty and integrity.
Ethical issues- These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of the participants in research studies and the goals of the researchers to produce authentic, valid, and worthwhile data.
Ethical implications- The impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people, especially participants. This includes, at a societal level, influencing public policy and, or the way in which certain groups of people are viewed.
Socially sensitive studies- Studies in which there are potential consequences or implications either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research.
It is necessary for the researcher to consider, not just the ethics of the process, but also the wide-reaching effects their research could have.
Milgram’s Obedience Study - Ethical Implications of Studies
↳The research showed that the German’s were not
‘different’ and therefore may have helped to change the perception of those who followed Hitler as ‘evil’.
Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory and Social Sensitivity
↳ It could be used to make mothers stay at home out of guilt and fear of being judged by others.
Ethical Implications strengths
The code of ethics governed by the British Psychological Society, together with university ethic boards, means that ethical implications of research must be considered if research is to be conducted.
Stringent guidelines protect all people who may be involved in the process.
The guidelines have become more careful as time has passed, so the chances of research causing problems have been reduced.
A benefit of socially sensitive research is that it can have benefits for the group who have been studied.
For example, in 1952 the DSM-1 listed homosexuality as a ‘sociopathic personality disorder’ but finally removed it in 1973.
This change has been credited to the Kinsey Report which was based on anonymous interviews with over 5000 men about their sexual behaviour. The report concluded that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour.
This illustrates the importance of researchers tackling topics that are sensitive.
Ethical Implications limitations
The ethical guidelines set for research permission are seen by some to be too strict.
strict. There are areas of research which could elicit helpful findings that could benefit a lot of people.
However, the research cannot be conducted due to the research process potentially causing issues for the participants of the research. Reaching a balance is therefore problematic.
In some studies, there could be negative consequences for the groups being studied, which in some cases could have been anticipated.
For example, research investigating the genetic basis of criminality has found that there is a ‘criminal gene’.
gene’. Does this mean that someone could be convicted on the basis that they have such a gene or should they be excused because they cannot be held responsible for any wrongdoing? This suggests that when researching socially sensitive topics, there is a need for very careful consideration of the possible outcomes and their consequences.
