issues and debates (paper 3) Flashcards
(10 cards)
give the definitions and issues of bias and universality
bias occurs when a psychologist’s pre-existing beliefs and viewpoints, stemming from their personal experiences, cultural background, education, political beliefs, and gender-related social experiences, influence their theories and data interpretation
this is an issue as it results in an understanding of human behaviour shaped by the researcher’s perspectives and misconceptions, rather the being grounded in objective data
universality is the argument that observed behaviours apply to all humans - regardless of differences in gender, biology, or cultural background
psychologists will often assume universality, however if their hypothesis is tested on a non-diverse sample, their discoveries may not be generalisable to a broader population
the majority of accepted psychological research (mostly from researchers in the USA and UK) suffers from sampling bias, whereby participants are WEIRD (from western, educated, industrialised, rich, and democratic societies), which is not reflective of the general population, the common use of opportunity samples can be a cause of this issue
this means that when another group’s behavier differs from this standard falsely claimed to be universal, it will be (wrongly) defined as abnormal
gender bias
happens when a researcher’s stereotypical views about male and female behaviour affects their theoretical assumptions, leading to misrepresentations
androcentrism - gender biased theories tend to reflect and support a male-centric view of the world, because most theories are from male psychologists, and also reflective social norms at the time of the research
alpha bias - the assumption that there are significant differences in behaviour between genders often leading to overemphasis and exaggeration of this
beta bias - the assumption that there are no significant differences in the behaviour of males and females, often leading to underestimating and minimising of actual differences
cultural bias
happens when human behaviour is interpreted and judged based on a researcher’s cultural norms and experiences, leading to skewed perceptions and understandings of behaviours outside the researcher’s cultural context
often stems from an ethnocentric perspective - viewing your culture as superior or the standard against which other cultures should be evaluated
much of current psychological theory has been conducted by and on people from a western background, this becomes a problem it claiming psychological research reveals universal behaviour - when tests developed in and for western cultures are applied to different cultural contexts, cultural biases can influence the diagnosis and understanding of disorders, potentially leading to misinterpretations and inaccuracies in psychological assessment and treatment
cultural relativism - the principle that human behaviour should be understood within the context of the culture where it occurs, taking into account that culture’s norms, values, and beliefs, and acknowledging that behaviours deemed normal or moral in one culture may be perceived differently in another, emphasising understanding and respect of cultural differences without suggesting that all practices and beliefs are equally valid or beneficial (human rights and wellbeing across cultural boundaries)
dealing with bias (gender and culture)
researchers should not assume universal norms or differences across sexes or cultures, and any clams of universality or difference should be supported by empirical data
the dominance of one gender or cultural perspective can be challenged through greater diversity and equal representation among researchers, including encouraging and supporting more female researchers and indigenous psychology (research conducted by individuals native to or with a deep understanding of the culture being researched)
use of diverse samples, cross-cultural research or comparisons of findings with replications across multiple cultures instead of assuming that findings from a single culture are universally applicable
researchers should adopt a reflexive approach, which involves actively reflecting on their beliefs, values, and experiences, to recognize how these factor may influence their interpretation of participant behaviour - this aims to reduce bias to enhance the validity of their findings, and can aid in adapting research methods to ensure they are culturally relevant
clearly state when reporting research findings that the theories and conclusions can only be applied to the culture and gender of the sample to avoid misinterpretation by other psychologists and the media
describe the different arguments within the free will vs determinism debate
hard determinism - personality traits and behaviour are set by forces outside of our control, both external and internal, with no role for free will
soft determinism - traits and behaviours ore, to an extent, dictated by internal and external forces, however we do have some level of control and therefore free will over our behaviour through conscious thought processes
cognitive psychologists are soft determinists as they appreciate the influence of biological factors such as generics and brain processes on behaviour, however they also believe that humans can utilise cognitive processes like choice and decision-making to change their thought patterns and therefore their behaviour and emotional responses, indicating a capacity for self-directed change (e.g. CBT)
free will - individuals consciously decide their behaviour without deterministic constraints
humanism is the only approach that argues for free will and rejects determinism completely, this is because humanists believe humans have agency i.e. they are capable of making free choices and are responsible for them, and theories focus on the human capacity for self-actualisation and psychological growth as examples of free will
describe the different types of determinism
environmental - the argument that our experiences in the world shape our behaviour, we have learned to behave in specific ways based on factors like growing up macertain culture and reinforcement
behaviourists are considered to be hard environmental determinists as they suggest behaviour can be fully explained by stimulus-response, with no consideration of conscious thought processes
social learning theorists are soft environmental determinists as they suggest we learn vicariously (learning from experience and from the environment) but they also take into account the role of internal mental processes that mediate between stimulus and response
biological - the argument that behaviour is predetermined by genetics and biological processes, such as hormone or neurotransmitter levels in the body and brain, and even brain structure
psychic - the belief that behaviour is determined by unconscious forces and innate drives, shaped by childhood experiences (e.g. conflicts between the id, ego, and superego, and defence mechanisms used by the unconscious mind to shield the conscious mind), considered soft determinist as therapy can make individuals aware of their unconscious motivations and gain conscious control over their behaviour
evaluate the free will vs determinism debate
the free will argument has face validity, people consciously experience what they feel to be free will, however determinists argue that this is an illusion
by assuming that the scientific principle of cause-and-effect applies to humans, and utilising the scientific method, psychologists have successfully predicted and had an effect on human behaviour, for example where mental illnesses have been linked to a neurotransmitter imbalance, the use of drugs to change neurotransmitter levels in the brain has had a significant effect on the way those people are able to live their life
EEG research in 1983 showed a ‘readiness-potential’ that made a decision less then a second before awareness of a conscious decision, and modern MRI research found a seven second delay between detection of a signal predicting which hand will be used to press a button and the participant being consciously aware of the decision supporting the argument that the conscious choices humans experience are an illusion
taking a wholly determinist viewpoint and arguing that behaviour is due to a single determining factor oversimplifies the complexity of decision-making, it is more likely that human behaviour is caused by the interaction of multiple factors e.g. as suggested by Bandura’s reciprocal determinism, while our environment an influence our actions, our actions can also shape our environment
our society is based on the assumption that free will is correct, if we were to take a determinist approach there would be a multitude of implications e.g. offenders could receive lighter sentences as the crime was not ultimately up to them, or alternatively people could be punished prematurely if they have ‘violent genes’
explain the nature vs nurture debate
nature (rené descartes) - the concept that the mind possesses innate ideas at birth, that form the basis of all knowledge and understanding, transmitted biologically through heredity
nurture (john locke) - argues that knowledge and understanding is gained through the environment and comes from experience and observation as the mind is believed to be a ‘tabula rasa’ (blank slate) at birth that is filled and shaped by experiences
the debate argues the extent to which behaviours are due to the influence of nature or nurture, considering each side’s relative importance, and interactionism suggests that genes and the environment actively interact and influence each other (e.g. diathesis-stress model)
evaluate the nature vs nurture debate
taking a dichotomous perspective of behaviour as solely innate or environmental can benefit the development of treatments, for example assuming OCD is entirely down to genetics led to the production of SSRIs, however there is evidence that the best treatment for OCD combines drugs with CBT, supporting the interactionist approach
rates of mental health conditions like OCD and schizophrenia are higher in monozygotic twins suggesting a genetic influence, however concordance rates are never 100%, implying the conditions cannot be purely due to genetics, supporting the interplay of nature and nurture
assuming behaviour is primarily influenced by only one of nature or nurture has implications in the real world e.g. sufferers of mental health conditions are more likely to take a passive role in their treatment if a purely biological explanation is accepted, not leaving room for environmental factors that motivate them to modify their thought processes, and if behaviour is seen as totally determined by genetics then offenders with certain genetic markers could receive lighter sentences
there is scientific evidence to prove the interaction of nature and nurture with epigenetic modification, whereby DNA has chemical marks that can alter how genes are expressed, and environmental experiences can influence the epigenome
apply the nature vs nurture debate to approaches
the psychodynamic approach is an example of interactionism, suggesting that all children experience the innate process of the psychosexual stages of development, however this combined with the child’s unique environmental experiences during these stages will ultimately shape their personality and anxieties as an adult
closer to nature - genetic explanation for OCD, bowlby’s monotropic theory
closer to nurture - upboard love theory of attachment, ainsworth’s strange situation, behaviourist approach to phobias, conditioning, social learning theory
behaviourism is widely accepted as the approach most closely aligned to the nurture side of the debate, however there are biological elements e.g. the unconditioned response of pavlov’s dogs drooling at food was not a learned behaviour
in the same way, the biological approach, which is almost solely nature, recognises the impact of environmental factors on biological processes e.g. brain plasticity can be explained as the brain physically adapting in response to experiences
