Issues & debates Flashcards
(18 cards)
What is the nature-nurture debate?
The N-N debate examines the extent to which human behaviour is shaped by inherited traits or environmental influences. Recent research however has been more concerned with explanations of how n + n interact.
Describe Nature (A01)
Nature refers to the inherited factors that contribute to behaviour + development. Early nativist, such as Rene Descartes, argued that all human characteristics are innate, obtained through hereditary. Behavioural and physical traits that are expressed (phenotype) are rooted in the genetic code (genotype), which is inherited through the human genome. These traits are influenced by biological factors, such as hormones and neurotransmitters. Furthermore, the nature perspective acknowledges the role of innate instincts, as emphasised in evolutionary psychology, suggesting some traits have developed to enhance survival and reproduction.
Describe nurture (AO1)
Nurture refers to the influence of experience. Empirists argue that at birth the mind is a blank slate, and that we then learn behaviour through interaction with the environment. Lerner (1986) has identified different levels in the environment. This includes prenatal factors, such as how physical influences (smoking) or psychological influences (music) affects a foetus.
Describe an interactionist approach (AO1)
The reality5pot6 is that there are many n+n factors that contribute to behaviour. There is now a wide acceptance that its not just that genes + enviroment both influences us, but that they interact with each other, and this is an interactionist approach, of which there are three types.
Firstly, the diathesis stress model, which suggests that biological predispositions (diatheses), such as a genetic vulnerability to mental illnesses like OCD, are only expressed when activated by an environmental trigger (stressor). In this sense, nurture activates nature.
Secondly, epigenetics refers to changes in genetic activity without altering the underlying DNA. These changes occur through interactions with the environment, leading to the creation of “epigenetic tags” that can influence gene function during an individual’s lifetime. These changes can be passed on to future generations, resulting in transgenerational effects. This suggests that behaviour and traits are influenced not only by our own genes and environment but also by the environmental experiences of our parents and grandparents. Here, nurture modifies nature.
Finally, a constructivist approach argues that people can create their own nurture by actively seeking environments that our appropriate for their nature. This means that what sometimes appears to be an environmental influence is actually a genetic influences, for example, a child who is predisposed to be introverted will seek out activities that are quiter. Biology interacts with both the cultural context + the personal choices that people male about how they want to live their lives. There is no simple way of separating there different + reciprocal influences on human behaviour.
Evaluate the nature-nurture debate (AO3)
Twin studies provide valuable insights into the interaction between nature and nurture in the development of mental disorders such as OCD. Research by Nestadt et al. found a CCR of 68% for MZ twins and 31% for DZ twins. These findings suggest a significant genetic contribution to OCD, as the higher concordance rate in MZ twins—who share 100% of their DNA—compared to DZ twins—who share 50%—indicates a biological predisposition to the disorder. This supports the nativist perspective, which attributes OCD to inherited genetic factors encoded in the human genome.
However, the fact that the CCR for MZ twins is not 100% highlights the role of environmental influences, supporting the empiricist view. This discrepancy implies that while genetics play a key role, they are not the sole determinant of OCD; environmental triggers are likely necessary to activate this biological vulnerability. For example, the shared experiences of twins, such as upbringing or exposure to specific stressors, may influence whether the disorder manifests.
Moreover, the higher concordance rates in MZ twins might be partially attributed to their shared environment, both pre and post natal) and similar treatment by others, which could inflate the observed genetic influence. MZ twins often experience greater environmental similarity than DZ twins, potentially exaggerating the contribution of nature. This challenges the notion that OCD is purely genetic and instead supports an interactionist approach, which emphasizes the dynamic interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental triggers, supporting the diathesis stress model. Therefore, twin studies demonstrate that both biological and environmental factors interact in complex ways to contribute to the development of OCD, illustrating the limitations of adopting a purely nature or nurture perspective.
Nativists argue that “anatomy is destiny,” asserting that our genetic makeup entirely determines our characteristics and behaviour, thereby reducing the complexity of human behaviour to neurochemical and biological processes. This extreme biologically deterministic stance has provoked significant controversy, including contentious claims linking ethnicity, genetics, and intelligence, which historically fuelled the implementation of unethical eugenic policies.
Conversely empiricists, take an environmental deterministic stance in suggesting behaviour is shaped by our environment, which we have no control over, thus negating the role of free will. This dichotomy highlights the reductionist and socially sensitive implications of both extremes of the nature-nurture continuum. In response to these limitations, the interactionist approach emerges as a more balanced perspective, recognizing the dynamic interplay between biological predispositions and environmental influences, thereby avoiding the pitfalls of determinism and reductionism.
Define cultural bias
A tendency to interpret all phenomena through the lens of ones own culture, ignoring the effects that cultural differences might have on behaviour.
Define ethnocentrism
A particular form of cultural bias where other cultures are judged by the standards + values of ones own culture, often leading to biased conclusions. In its extreme form it is the belief in the superiority of ones own culture, which may result in prejudice + discrimination towards other cultures.
Define cultural relativism
The idea that norms + values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood in specific social + cultural contexts.
Discuss cultural bias in psychology (16 marks)
Cultural bias refers to the tendency to interpret all psychological phenomena exclusively through the framework of one’s own culture, disregarding the impact of cultural variations on behaviour. This bias challenges the universality of psychological findings. Henrich et al. (2010) highlighted this issue by reviewing numerous studies published in leading psychology journals, revealing that 68% of research participants were from the United States and 96% from industrialized nations. To describe this overrepresented demographic, he coined the term WEIRD—Westernized, Educated individuals from Industrialized, Rich Democracies. If the norm or standard for a particular behaviour is set by WERID people then the behaviour from non-westen, less educated, agricultural and poorer culture is envitable seen as abnormal or inferior.
This belief in one culture being infior to ones own, and that ones own is supeior, is known as ethnocentrism, which results from judging other cultures by the standards + values of ones one culture. This may lead to prejudce + discrimmanation towards other cultures.
A key example of ethnocentrism in psychological research is Ainsworth’s Strange Situation, criticized for reflecting Western cultural norms. Ainsworth’s study on attachment suggested that an ideal attachment was typified by moderate distress in infants when separated from their caregiver, a hallmark of secure attachment. However, applying these criteria universally led to the mischaracterization of child-rearing practices in other cultures. For instance, 35% of German children were categorized as insecure-avoidant, though this behavior may align with German cultural values that prioritize independence over dependence. This represents an imposed etic—where behaviours are studied inside one cultural and then assumed their ideal attachment type and method for assessing it could be applied universally. Consequently, German were unfairly labelled as neglectful, illustrating the detrimental social implications of ethnocentric research. To mitigate cultural bias, psychologists should adopt cultural relativism, the recognition that norms, values, and ethical standards must be understood within their specific cultural contexts. By embracing cultural relativism, researchers can critically assess whether findings are culturally specific or applicable across cultures, thereby increasing universality and validity in psychological research.
Cultural bias (AO3)
Efforts to address cultural bias in psychology highlight both strengths and limitations of cross-cultural research. A key strength lies in the potential for cross-cultural research to provide a more inclusive understanding of human behaviour. Sampling a broader percentage of the world’s population ensures greater representation of diverse cultures, challenging the dominance of Westernized perspectives. The involvement of indigenous researchers and employing an emic approach to ensure culturally sensitive and relevant methodologies increases the ecological validity of findings. For example, creating culture-specific tools to study attachment, tailoring these tools to the unique norms and practices of the culture being studied. This not only reduces ethnocentrism but also increases the validity of the findings by respecting cultural relativity.
However, significant limitations remain. One issue is the fluid and subjective nature of culture, which complicates the study of cultural bias. Traditional dichotomies, such as the individualist-collectivist dimension, oversimplify cultural differences. Modern globalization and technological advancements have blurred the lines between these categories, making such distinctions less relevant. Consequently, the reliance on outdated cultural dimensions can limit the applicability of research findings, calling for more nuanced approaches to categorizing cultural variation.
Cross-cultural research provides important strengths by challenging individualist assumptions and highlighting how many concepts are socially constructed rather than biologically hardwired, deepening our understanding of human nature. This can reduce cultural bias and foster greater inclusivity in psychological research. However, it is important not to assume that all behaviour is culturally relative. For example, Ekman (1989) identified universal facial expressions for emotions like happiness and disgust, and research into attachment shows that features such as recproicity and interactional synchrony are evident across cultures. This balance between cultural specificity and universality underscores the need for a more complete approach. While addressing cultural bias helps debunk ethnocentric assumptions and reveals the variability in human behaviour, it should not obscure the existence of shared, biologically-rooted aspects of psychology. Recognizing both universal traits and cultural differences allows for a more holistic and accurate understanding of human behaviour.
Describe the idiographic approach (AO1)
Derived from the Greek term ‘idios’ meaning personal or private, the IA is a method of investigating behaviour that focuses on individuals rather than making generalisations across groups. This perspective emphasises the singularity of each persons unique perceptions, experiences, motivations and values, rejecting comparsions to others or adherence to universal norms. Instead, the IA seeks to provide a detailed in-depth account of indivdual characteristics, often relaying on case studies, qualitive observations and self-reports to explain aypical behaviour. The psycodynamic approach exemplifies the I method by analysing individual childhood experiences, unique drives + fixation points within the psychosexual stages of development. Freuds case study of Little Hans provides an in-depth exploration of phobias, offering insight into how personal experiences shape behaviour. While findings from I research lack broad generalizability, they can significantly inform psychological theory. For instances, Freud used individual data to develop the Oedipus complex, illustrating how I research can contribute foundational ideas to psychology. Despite its limitations in universality, this approach offers a nuanced understanding of human behaviour, particularly in uncovering atypical or highly specific phenomena.
Idiographic approach (AO3)
Findings derived from the idiographic approach often face challenges in being generalized beyond the specific individual studied, which inherently limits the ecological validity and wider applicability of such conclusions. This inability to generalize means that, on its own, the idiographic approach struggles to enhance the scientific credibility of psychology, as broader principles cannot be established without additional examples or corroborative data. Furthermore, the methods used within this approach are typically subjective, relying heavily on qualitative data and the interpretations of the researcher. While this allows for an in-depth exploration of unique experiences, it opens the findings to potential bias, as researchers may unintentionally project their expectations or theoretical leanings onto the data. Consequently, this raises concerns regarding the objectivity and reliability of idiographic research, reducing its contribution to the empirical rigor typically associated with scientific inquiry. However, these limitations highlight the importance of integrating idiographic findings with nomothetic approaches to achieve a more holistic understanding of human behavior.
Nomothetic (AO1)
The nomothetic approach, derived from the Greek word nomos meaning law, seeks to study human behavior through the formulation of general principles and universal laws. Unlike the idiographic approach, the nomothetic approach focuses on large groups and employs quantitative data collection methods, often associated with scientific techniques such as laboratory experiments and controlled observations. These methods allow for the generation of testable hypotheses and the production of numerical data that can be statistically analyzed for significance, aiming to quantify human behavior.
An example of the nomothetic approach is the behaviorist perspective, such as Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiments, where dogs were used to scientifically test hypotheses and generalize findings to human behavior.
However, a significant limitation of the nomothetic approach lies in its tendency to ignore individual differences, often reducing people to data points or averages. This reductionist perspective can lead to a loss of the “whole person,” failing to capture the complexity and richness of subjective human experiences. For instance, while Pavlov’s findings provide valuable insights into conditioned responses, they fail to account for the unique emotional, social, or cognitive factors that influence individual behavior.
Ultimately, neither approach is sufficient on its own to provide a complete understanding of human behavior. The idiographic approach excels in offering depth and a detailed exploration of individuality, whereas the nomothetic approach provides breadth and generalizable principles. By recognizing the complementary strengths of both approaches, psychologists can adopt an interactionist perspective, where idiographic insights inform nomothetic research, and vice versa. This balance not only enhances the scientific credibility of psychology but also ensures a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of human behavior, bridging the gap between universal principles and individual experiences.
What is gender bias?
When considering human behaviour, bias is the tendency to treat one indvdual or group in a different way from others. In the context of gender bias, psycological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifably represent represent the expeirence and behaviour of men or women (usually women).
What is alpha bias?
One example of gender bias is alpha bias, which is psychological research that focuses on differences between men + women and tends to present a view that exaggerates these differences. Such differences are typically presented as fixed and enivatable. Sometimes these differences heighten the value of women, but more often they devalue women in relation to men.
What is beta bias?
In contrast, research that ignores or underestimates gender differences is beta-biased. Therefore where real differences do exists the research may ignore them. This happens when we assume that research findings apply equally to both men + women.
What is androcentrisim?
Alpha bias and beta bias are consequences of androcentrism. This is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard, and as a result women are bound to seem abnormal, inferior or deficient by comparison. This means females are consequently likely to be misunderstood or even pathologized
Evaluate gender bias (AO3)
A major issue with gender bias in psychological research is that it can lead to incorrect conclusions based on flawed assumptions, ultimately decreasing the validity of studies. One example of this is Asch’s conformity study, which exhibited beta bias by assuming that findings from an all-male sample could be generalized to both men and women. However, later research has shown that women tend to be more conformist than men, likely due to differences in socialization and group dynamics.
Women are often encouraged to be more cooperative and group-oriented, while men are typically socialized to be more independent and assertive. These gender-specific socialization expectations could influence conformity levels, demonstrating how gender bias has led to Asch’s findings not necessarily reflecting universal conformity behavior. His beta-biased conclusions not only reduce the validity of his findings but also reinforce stereotypes about male and female behavior, potentially overlooking the social pressures women face in group settings.
This actively demonstrates the harmful implications of gender bias, as psychological theories built on biased assumptions can misrepresent real-world behaviours, leading to flawed applications in areas such as workplace dynamics, leadership, and education.
That being said, many modern researchers now recognise the effect of their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work, and so have greater reflexitivity, and thus recognizing gender bias has led to positive developments in psychological research. Researchers are now more aware of the need for gender-balanced samples, leading to more representative studies that apply to both men and women. This shift strengthens the overall validity and universality of psychological research, ensuring that findings better reflect the diversity of human experiences.
