Issues & Debates - Cultural Bias Flashcards
What are the key features of cultural bias?
- psychologists seek universality but bias may be inevitable
- universality assumed for results of Western research
- ethnocentrism results in a view that other behaviours are deficient
- one notable example of ethnocentric research is the Strange Situation
- respecting cultural relativism helps to avoid cultural bias
- etic and emic approaches are universal or culture-specific respectively
Can results found in psychological studies be generalised to the entire population?
Many critics argue that although psychology may claim to have unearthed truths about people all over the world (universality), in reality findings from studies only apply to the particular groups of people who were studied (i.e. show cultural bias).
How is universality assumed for results of Western research?
Researchers have wrongly assumed that findings from studies in Western cultures can be applied all over the world.
For example, studies of conformity (Asch) and obedience (Milgram) revealed very different results when they were replicated in parts of the world outside the US.
If the norm or standard for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one particular culture, then any cultural differences in behaviour will inevitably be seen as ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’ (cultural bias).
What is ethnocentrism?
Ethnocentrism is the belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group.
In psychological research this may be communicated through a view that any behavior that does not conform to the (usually Western) model is somehow deficient or underdeveloped.
Give an example of ethnocentric research.
Ainsworth (1970) in her Strange Situation study has been criticised as reflecting only the norms and values of American culture in attachment research.
She identified the key defining variable of attachment type as the child’s experience of anxiety on separation. She suggested the ideal (or secure) attachment was the infant showing moderate distress when left alone by the mother figure.
This led to misinterpretation of child-rearing practices in other countries which deviated from the American norm. For example, German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging independence in their children.
Thus the Strange Situation was revealed as an inappropriate measure of attachment type for non-US children.
How can you avoid cultural bias?
Respecting cultural relativism helps to avoid cultural bias. The ‘facts’ and ‘things’ that psychologists discover may only make sense from the perspective of the culture within which they were discovered. Being able to recognise this is one way of avoiding cultural bias in research.
What are etic and emic approaches?
Berry (1969) argues that:
- An etic approach looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and identifies behaviours that are universal.
- An emic approach functions from within certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.
Ainsworth’s research illustrates an imposed etic - she studied behaviours within a single culture (American) and then assumed her ideal attachment type could be applied universally.
What are the strengths of research into cultural bias?
- the recognition of both cultural relativism and universals
- cross-cultural research challenges Western assumptions
What are the weaknesses of research into cultural bias?
- the distinction between individualism and collectivism
- cross-cultural research is prone to demand characteristics
- difficulties with the interpretation of variables
Why is the recognition of both cultural relativism and universal a strength?
The ‘imposed etic’ shows the culturally specific nature of psychology. But we should not assume all psychology is culturally relative and that there is no such thing as universal human behaviour.
Ekman (1989) suggests basic facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the human and animal world. Some features of human attachment (e.g. imitation and interactional synchrony) are universal.
A full understanding of human behaviour requires the study of both universals and variation among individuals and groups.
How does cross-cultural research challenge Western assumptions?
One of the great benefits of conducting cross-cultural research is that it may challenge our typically Western ways of thinking and viewing the world.
Understanding that the knowledge and concepts we take for granted are not shared by others may promote greater sensitivity to individual differences and cultural relativism.
This means the conclusions psychologists draw are likely to have more validity if they recognise the role of culture in bringing them about.
Why is the distinction between individualism and collectivism a weakness?
Psychologists have often referred to culture in the context of individualism versus collectivism. Individualist cultures (e.g. the US) value the individual and independence. Collectivist cultures (e.g. India) value the group and interdependence.
Critics argue this is a lazy and simplistic distinction that no longer applies. Takano and Osaka (1999) found 14 out of 15 studies comparing the US and Japan found no evidence of a distinction between the two types of culture.
This could suggest that this form of cultural bias (seeing the world as individualistic versus collectivist) is less of an issue than it once was.
How is cross-cultural research prone to demand characteristics?
When conducting research in Western culture, the participants’ familiarity with the general aims and objectives of scientific enquiry is assumed.
In cultures without historical experience of research, local populations may be more affected by demand characteristics than Western participants.
This is a particular form of cultural bias where unfamiliarity with the research tradition threatens the validity of the outcome.
What difficulties are there with the interpretation of variables?
Another issue with conducting research in different cultures is that the variables under review may not be experienced in the same way by all participants.
Emotions may give rise to different behaviours within an indigenous population compared to the West (e.g. invasion of personal space is normal in China, but threatening in the West).
Issues like these may affect interactions between the researcher and participants in cross-cultural studies and this may reduce the validity of the findings.
