Italy Flashcards
What were the key problems facing Italy in the early part of the 20th century?
- Unification
- The Political System in Italy
- Economic and social problems
- The North-South divide
- Italy as a ‘Great Power’
What problems did Italy have with unification in the early 20th century?
Political leaders struggled to create an identity for Italy as:
- Italy had been fragmented politically, economically and culturally since the Middle Ages
- Italian’s were defined by campanilismo instead of a national identity
- They weren’t unified by language as 99% spoke a regional dialect
What is some evidence that Italy wasn’t truly unified?
- 100 protesters were killed in a brutal government crackdown in Milan whilst protesting against the growing economic problems and Italy’s poor political system.
- 29th July 1900 king Umberto I was assassinated by an Italian anarchist avenging the protester’s deaths.
What problems did Italy have with its political system in the early 20th century?
- Italians in parliament were all Middle Class, northern professionals representing own class interests at expense of those of the population
- Attitude of the Catholic Church and the ‘Roman Question’ hampered political development and questioned the legitimacy of newly unified Italy
- Prevented creation of a national conservative party with Catholic values, so their was no parliamentary challenge to the ruling liberal Middle Classes
- Less than 25% of Italian men had the vote
- Italian politicians had same liberal ideologies, so very few formal political parties were formed, governments tended to be
- process of trasformismo used was characterised by corruption, frequent government changes and an inability to pass legislation
- The attitude of the liberal elite created a divide between ‘real Italy’ (the Italian people) and ‘legal Italy’ (the government).
What economic and social problems did Italy have in the early part of the 20th century?
- 1899-1914 Italy faced economic expansion and industrialisation in the North, this led to the growth of iron, steel, chemical, mechanical and electrical industries.This also helped increase agricultural production
- BUT, industrialisation didn’t benefit the wider population and those in rural areas as living standards were poor and protests against high tax, food shortages and unemployment were common.
- 1901-1911 over 1500 strikes took place with around 350,000 workers
- Industrialisation accentuated the North-South divide problem
What problems did Italy have with the North-South divide in the early parts of the 20th century?
- intellectuals grappled with the ‘questione meridionale’ (Southern question)
- South had poor economic structure and geographical location and was treated poorly by the North
- in 1911 the situation worsened as industrialisation was focused in large northern cities like Milan, Turin, Genoa and Bologna
- A 1911 government census showed that half of 2.2M industrial workers in Italy were from North (specifically Lombardy, Liguria and Pidemont)
- Problems in the South = poor diet, malnutrition, lack of clean water, high rates of infant mortality, malaria and tuberculosis. Half of population = illiterate + from 1910-1911 25000 people died from cholera epidemic due to poor drinking water.
- Solution = heavy migration, 1901-1913 200,000 Southern peasants left Italy yearly. Failed to deal with long-term issue of North-south divide.
What was the problem of Italy being a great power in the early parts of the 20th century?
-Italy lagged behind the Great European powers
-was also geographically disadvantaged as French and British dominated Mediterranean
-Italian foreign policy was characterised by irredentism (which it wad unable to do at the time) and gaining overseas colonies (also weak in this area)
-Focused on Tunisia, but 1881 the French backed by Britain invaded and claimed it, led to Italy singing ‘The Triple Alliance’
-1884 Britain allows Italy to colonise Abyssinia, it fails to do so in the Battle of Dogali (500 Italian soldiers died)
also lost at second attempt at Battle of Adwa 1896.
What factors made up Giolitti’s government?
- His relationship with the socialists
- His relationship with the Church
- His relationship with the nationalists
- His foreign policy
How did Giolitti attempt to create a truly unified Italy?
Focused on gaining support of the three key oppositions of liberal Italy: the socialists, the church and the nationalists.
Explain the rise of the Socialists and how Giolitti attempted to gain their support?
Socialism, specifically the political institution, the PSI, began to rapidly increase as in the 1900 general election it achieved 216,000 votes and by 1902, 250,000 industrial workers joined the socialist national federations for strikes for higher wages. This is because socialism appealed to the working class especially those who moved to the North due to industrialisation. Also was supported by a number of academically educated intellectuals.
- Giolitti wanted to ‘absorb’ socialist deputies into the political system by offering a number of reforms ie) the compulsory accident insurance in industrial work paid for by employers, limiting the working day for women to 11 hours (1902) etc. further reforms introduced in 1913. Most important was 1906 policy of establishment of arbitration courts that would decrease need for workers strikes
- He was able to win over PSI reformists like Turati, but not maximalists like Mussolini and the compromises he made for the socialists led him into conflict with the Church and nationalists.
Explain Giolitti’s relationship with the Church and how he gained their support?
- His 1911 relationship with the Church relied on previous policies implemented since 1904.
- In 1904 he made concessions to them like allowing a divorce bill
- Catholic Church grew its political influence from 1904-1911 via youth groups and sports clubs.
- BUT, Giolitti made it clear that he valued socialist support the most as he didn’t make and concessions regarding the Roman Question or anything that brought the socialists into conflict with him.
Explain Giolitti and how he gained the support of Nationalists?
- Nationalism was a massive threat to him as during his term from 1904-1911 it became highly influential as an ideological movement
- this movement was highly supported by the educated middle classes
- In 1910 the nationalists created the ANI, which wanted to overthrow the ‘weak’ Giolitti and his ‘corrupt’ policies
- Giolitti failed to hinder support for nationalism so took a different path when in 1911 he attempted to embrace nationalism through expanding Italy’s empire by invading Libya
What was Giolitti’s foreign policy?
- Foreign Policy was difficult as Triple Alliance held strains because of irredente lands held by its supposed ally Austria
- Nationalists and Church supported invasion of Libya due to expansionism and economic interests. It would provide work for the poor Southern peasant population too.
- France and Italy made a deal in 1902 (Morocco support in exchange for Libya support), but Giolitti feared France would back out
- 29th September 1911 Italy invaded Libya with 70,000 troops (3,500 died) , but Ottomans fought back well, so Giolitti occupied 13 Turkish Islands in the Aegean Sea to weaken them. It was a success and on 8th October Italy was formally handed control of Libya and pacification of Arabs began.
- By 1912 it was evident Giolitti’s reform was successful, but his government was soon to be threatened by the Libyan war and introduction of universal suffrage (right to vote)
What are the factors that need to be taken into account when deciding how successful the liberal government was in dealing with Italy’s growing instability between 1912-1914?
- The impact of the invasion of Libya
- Impact of the franchise extension of 1912 (allowing suffrage/ vote)
- Resignation of Giolitti
- Growth of Nationalism and Socialism
- The declaration of neutrality
What impact did the invasion of Libya have in the growing instability of the liberal government from 1912-1914?
- It failed to ‘absorb’ nationalism as it increased the support of the ANI
- Led to failure to ‘absorb’ socialism as the war was seen imperialist militarism and the PSI and socialists no longer associated themselves with Giolitti and his government
What impact did the franchise extension of 1912 have on on the instability of the liberal government from 1912-1914?
- Accentuated Giolitti’s problems as he introduced suffrage in his 1911 government programme, so now 70% of Italy’s votes were illiterate as vote extended to men over 30 literate or illiterate and soldiers.
- Instead of resulting in a sense of unification that Giolitti hoped for it just resulted in the opposite of which he hoped for.
How did the resignation of Giolitti impact the instability of the liberal government in Italy from 1912-1914?
- 1913 elections demonstrated failure of Giolitti’s introduction of suffrage.
- Liberal deputies lost 71 seats from the 1909 elections, showing nationalists, socialists, Catholics and radicals were making extreme gains.
- Main threat was the Catholic Church as rumours circulated that it made a deal for liberal candidates to agree to 7 points including divorce law etc, in order to support them in the election
- Thus, the liberal regime began to become reliant from support from the Catholic Church, but concessions Giolitti already made angered socialists and anticlerical liberals and in 1914 they withdrew their support for him officially leading to Giolitti resigning.
- Hi resignation angered Catholics who felt he could have created a pro-Catholic block now that the anti-Church faction was gone.
How did the growth of nationalism and socialism impact the instability of the liberal government in Italy from 1912-1914?
- Giolitti was replaced by Antonio Sandra.
- Italian society seemed the most divided it had ever been as in June 1914 the ‘Red Week’ began as PSI proclaimed national strike due to 3 protesters being shot dead in Ancona. Anarchists and radicals all joined in an northern Italy was in Chaos as hundreds of workers died in battles against authorities. Eventually, the strike was shut down as trade unions agreed to call it off.
What impact did the 1914 declaration of neutrality have on the instability in liberal government in Italy from 1912-1914?
- August 1914 WW1 broke out
- Italy’s treaty obligations to Austria didn’t apply as they didn’t consult Italy when they declared war on Serbia, so Italy denounced that it would remain neutral, which caused conflict amongst Italian politicians and angered nationalist press who pushed for intervention.
What factors should be taken into account when assessing the impact of WW1 on Italy?
- The Intervention Crisis
- Military Stalemate 1915-16
- Defeat at Caporetto
- Socialist responses to the war
- The war economy and cost of war
- The significance of victory
How did the intervention crisis act as a factor when assessing the impact of WW1 on Italy?
- Italy declared neutrality in 1914, led to political crisis, PM Antonio Salandra argued Italy should join the war as if it was won by G and A-H they would not take kindly to Italy’s neutrality in their time of need and if F,B and R won they wouldn’t negotiate with Italy on the Mediterranean and giving them back the irredente lands.
- So on 26th April 1915 Italy signs Treaty Of London siding with B,F and R, which caused massive unrest in Italy,
- Early May 1915 the crisis of intervention grew as Giolitti denounces Treaty Of London and 300 deputies stand in opposition to Salandra’s decision. Socialists also expelled anyone promoting idea of interventionism ie) Mussolini.
- King offered Giolitti role of PM and told him he may abdicate if the Treaty wasn’t honoured, Giolitti refused position as didn’t want to overthrow king as he didn’t even honour the Treaty. So, King reinstates Salandra on the 16th May 1915 and gave Salandra emergency powers.
- PSI voted against the emergency powers.
How does the issue of military stalemate (1915-1916) act as a factor when assessing the impact of WW1 on Italy?
The war had reached a stalemate as Italy and Austria continued to fight back and forth in the icy mountainous area bordering the 2 countries using static trench warfare. Many died from cholera and frostbite.2 years of stalemate followed
- In 1915 62,000 Italians died in 4 attempted offensives against the Austrians
- issue was with the Italian society at large as many soldiers conscripted were peasants who spoke varying dialects, so couldn’t understand orders being given to them and didn’t care about the purpose of the war (ie, land). 290,000 Italian soldiers were court-martialled during the war for desertion.
- To solve desertion issue, the supreme commander Luigi Cadorna set harsh punishments like death sentences, and hampering any attempts to help troops who surrendered and were sent to war camps (100,000 died in war camps). The ones who survived it and were released had a strong sense of abandonment and anger towards the Italian government.
How did the defeat at Caporetto act as as a factor when assessing the impact WW1 had on Italy?
An embarrassing loss for Italy.
- 1916 Austrian army launch the offensive Strafexpendition, but barely lose as a result Salandra forced to resign and Paolo Boselli put in his place
- October 1917 Battle of Caporetto occurs as Austria decimates the Italian line, and Italian soldiers react humiliatingly, rioting, vanishing, being violent. 400,000 soldiers merely disappear and abandon the war, showing their poor morale.
- Once again led to conflict in Italy and Vittorio Orlando takes Boselli’s place who focused on improvements ie) increasing soldier rations and annual leave time, boosting morale via speeches and organising land reform promises for the peasants.
How did the socialist responses to the war act as a factor in assessing the impact WW1 had on Italy?
- PSI continued to oppose war, refusing to vote for war credits, declaring stance of ‘neither support nor sabotage’. This stance was hated by nationalists and many liberals seeing socialists as being ‘defeatists’.
- PSI’s position created even more polarisation between the left and the right as socialists seen as defeatists leading to the ‘stab in the back theory’ were arrested and imprisoned. Mussolini also blamed socialists and said they acted as bigger enemy than Austria itself.
How did the war economy and cost of war act as a factor in assessing the impact WW1 had on Italy?
WW1 had a significant effect on Italian economy.
- At beginning of WW1 Austria far ahead and had a better economy ie) well over double the amount of steel production, six times more machine guns etc.
- But during war Italian economy improved as Fiat became the leading European vehicle manufacture, Italy produced 20,000 machine guns, 7,000 pieces of heavy artillery etc. This was due to Alfredo Dallolio the under-secretarial of arms and munitions who banned strikes, and made women, peasants and men exempt from military service work in factories. Fiat increased work force from 6,000 to 30,000.
- But the fact that Italy was in war again caused the economy to fall heavily as inflation would go up. Italy owed a national debt of 84.9 billion lire in 1919, it was a 2.9 billion lire debt before the war. The production was heavily based in North adding to the North-south divide.
- Government began to indirectly deduct taxes and decrease wages (sometimes 25% decreases at a time!). Caused anger amongst the working population mainly the poorer ones. 1917 there were also bread, pasta, meat and sugar shortages and riots took place.
