Key areas

Question 1

Disorders of prefrontal cortex

Answer 1

anxiety, depression, adhd

Question 2

malfunctions of prefrontal cortex

Answer 2

impaired decision making, difficulty regulating emotions, problems w/ attn

Question 3

s/s prefrontal cortex malfunctioning

Answer 3

persistent sadness, lack of motivation, difficulty concentrating

Question 4

disorders of the amygdala

Answer 4

anxiety disorders, ptsd, depression

Question 5

malfunctions of the amygdala

Answer 5

overactivity can lead to heightened fear and anxiety responses

Question 6

s/s amygdala malfunctioning

Answer 6

intense fear, hypervigilance, emotional dysregulation

Question 7

disorders of hippocampus

Answer 7

depression, ptsd, alzheimer’s disease

Question 8

malfunctions of hippocampus

Answer 8

reduced neurogenesis and atrophy can affect memory formation and retrieval

Question 9

s/s hippocampus malfunctioning

Answer 9

memory issues, difficulty recalling past events, flashbacks

Question 10

disorders of basal ganglia

Answer 10

OCD, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s Disease

Question 11

malfunctions of basal ganglia

Answer 11

disrupted reward processing and motor control

Question 12

s/s basal ganglia malfunctioning

Answer 12

compulsive bx, impaired motivation, abnormal motor functions

Question 13

cortex

Answer 13

outer layer of the brain; divided into 4 regions: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe

Question 14

frontal lobe

Answer 14

personality, emotions, higher thinking skills, problem solving, and controlling movement.

Question 15

temporal lobe

Answer 15

processes hearing and other senses, helps with language

Question 16

parietal lobe

Answer 16

involved with senses, attention, language

Question 17

occipital lobe

Answer 17

vision, recognition of shapes and colors

Question 18

thalamus

Answer 18

in the center of the brain, relays sensory and motor info to the cortex and helps w/ consciousness, sleep, alertness

Question 19

cerebellum

Answer 19

key role in motor control, coordination, spatial navigation

Question 20

brainstem

Answer 20

connects to spinal cord, includes pons, medulla oblongata

Question 21

pons

Answer 21

controls breathing

Question 22

medulla oblongata

Answer 22

regulates heart & other reflexes like vomit, coughing, sneezing, swallowing

Question 23

limbic system

Answer 23

under the cortex; processes emotions and drives; contains reward circuitry which releases dopamine

Question 24

parts of the limbic system

Answer 24

amygdala, hippocampus (of the temporal lobe)

Question 25

amygdala action:

Answer 25

processes emotions

Question 26

hippocampus function

Answer 26

(in temporal lobe) acts as memory indexer

Question 27

hypothalamus

Answer 27

responsible for secreting hormones; gets adrenaline flowing, wakes up in the AM

Question 28

pituitary gland

Answer 28

controls growth, body temperature, pregnancy, child birth

Question 29

pineal gland

Answer 29

controls sleep and circadian rhythms

Question 30

disorders assoc. w/ thalamus

Answer 30

schizophrenia, ADHD

Question 31

malfunctions of thalamus

Answer 31

disrupted sensory processing and attn regulation

Question 32

s/s thalamus malfunction

Answer 32

sensory overload, distractibility, distorted perceptions

Question 33

phenotype

Answer 33

observable characteristics or traits like physical attributes, bx traits, physiological properties. Influenced by genotype and environmental factors

Question 34

epigenetics

Answer 34

study of changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype that do not involve alterations to the underlying DNA sequence. Changes can be caused by various factors like environmental influences, lifestyle, and developmental stages. Can be reversible.

Question 35

key differences b/t phenotype and epigenetics

Answer 35

phenotype is the actual traits and characteristics visible and can be product of genes and environment; epigenetics focuses on molecular and cellular mechanisms that change phenotype without changing the DNA sequence

Question 36

chemical transmission

Answer 36

neurotransmission is fundamentally chemical, but does have anatomical infrastructure. It is the process of chemical signals being coded, decoded, transduced, and sent. Neurons are the cells of chemical communication.

Question 37

types of chemical transmission

Answer 37

classic, retrograde, volume

Question 38

classic chemical transmission

Answer 38

presynaptic terminal to a second postsynaptic terminal (one direction)

Question 39

retrograde neurotransmission

Answer 39

postsynaptic neurons communicate with presynaptic neurons (bottom to top)

Question 40

volume neurotransmission

Answer 40

occurs without a synapse (spill over)

Question 41

signal transduction

Answer 41

cell signaling; chemical signal is transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events: protein phosphorylation, message sent, received, transduced, and response occurs

Question 42

importance of signal transduction

Answer 42

signals must be transmitted effectively into the cell to ensure an appropriate cellular response

Question 43

signal transduction cascades

Answer 43

g-protein-linked systems, ion-channel-linked systems, hormone-linked systems, neurotrophin-linked systems

Question 44

action potential

Answer 44

rapid and temporary electrical signal that travels along the membrane of a neuron or muscle cell; essential for neurotransmission

Question 45

Ligand-gated ion channels

Answer 45

open in response to binding of specific molecule (ligand) such as neurotransmitter or hormone. Commonly found in postsynaptic membranes of neurons, muscle cells. Allow ions like Na, K, Ca, or Cl to flow into or out of the cell when the ligand binds, leading to changes in membrane potential and cellular activity. Respond rapidly to ligand binding but may close quickly after activation.

Question 46

examples of ligand-gated ion channels

Answer 46

nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (open in response to acetylcholine binding) and GABA receptors (open in response to GABA binding, allowing Cl influx)

Question 47

voltage-sensitive ion channels

Answer 47

open or close in response to changes in membrane potential (voltage) across the cell membrane. Found in membranes of excitable cells like neurons and muscle cells. Allow ions to flow based on electrical state of membrane, contributing to action potentials and other electrical signaling processes. Often have more complex gated mechanisms and may remain open for a longer duration depending on voltage changes

Question 48

differences in ligand and voltage-sensitive channels: activation

Answer 48

ligand-gated respond to chemical signals; voltage-sensitive respond to electrical changes

Question 49

differences in ligand and voltage-sensitive channels: location

Answer 49

ligand-gated channels found at synapses; voltage-sensitive channels found in excitable tissues

Question 50

differences in ligand and voltage-sensitive channels: function

Answer 50

ligand-gated channels mediate rapid responses to signaling molecules; voltage-sensitive channels are crucial for generating and propagating action potentials