Key Studies and Vocabulary - CRIMINOLOGICAL Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
why is Loftus and Palmer (1974) important to eyewitness testimony PEI?
A
Loftus and Palmer (1974) found that changing the word used to ask a witness about a car accident affected their estimate of the speed at which the vehicles were travelling. This showed that PEI could influence the way a witness recalls the target event.
2
Q
why is Loftus et al. (1978) important to eyewitness testimony PEI?
A
Loftus et al. (1978) showed that misleading information given to witnesses after a delay has a greater effect on accuracy than PEI given immediately after the target event. This is because PEI has more of an effect once the details of the target event has had time to be forgotten
3
Q
why is Sutherland and Haine (2001) important to eyewitness testimony PEI?
A
Sutherland and Haine (2001) showed that PEI has more of an effect on accuracy when it concerns things that are peripheral to the main action than when it concerns things that are central to the action. This is because witnesses are less likely to have encoded peripheral details, meaning that the PEI is used to fill in gaps in the witness’s memory.
4
Q
why is Dodd and Bradshaw (1980) important to eyewitness testimony PEI?
A
Dodd and Bradshaw (1980) showed that witnesses were less affected by PEI from a source they did not trust because they were ‘on guard’ and therefore more likely to notice misleading PEI.
5
Q
why is Greene et al. (1982) important to eyewitness testimony PEI?
A
Greene et al. (1982) showed that witnesses are less likely to be affected by PEI if they are warned that they might be misled, but only if they are warned before the PEI is presented
6
Q
What research methods are used in eyewitness testimony PEI?
A
Laboratory experiments
Field experiments
7
Q
define criminological psychologist
A
any psychologist working in the area of crime and justice
8
Q
define forensic psychologist
A
a psychologist with a licence who is qualified to work within the police and criminal justice systems as a practitioner
9
Q
define practitioner
A
a psychologist who is trained and qualified to assess and intervene with individuals to alter their behaviour. Practitioners can be forensic, clinical, sports, health, occupational and educational psychologists.
10
Q
define researcher
A
a psychologist who investigates and explains behaviour but does not attempt to alter it deliberately. Psychologists are often either researchers or practitioners, but some are both.
11
Q
define crime
A
an act that is contrary to the criminal law of the country in which it takes place.
12
Q
define rule breaking
A
acts in which an individual understands a rule but chooses not to follow it. Not all crime is rule breaking, and not all rule breaking is crime. Because crime is a social construct it is hard to study scientifically, so most psychologists choose to study rule breaking instead.
13
Q
what research methods are used in criminological psychology overall?
A
Experiments (lab and field)
Correlation
Observation
Self-reports (interviews and questionnaire surveys)
Qualitative methods inc. thematic analysis
14
Q
define eyewitness testimony (EWT)
A
accounts of events given to the authorities based on the witness’s memory of what happened. EWT may be used by the police to guide their investigation and by the courts in deciding the guilt or innocence of a defendant.
15
Q
define post-event information (PEI)
A
information about events an individual has witnessed, given after the event has occurred.
16
Q
define target event
A
the event about which the witness is asked to retrieve information
17
Q
define reconstructive error
A
inaccuracies in recall that happen when witnesses either unconsciously or consciously try to recall events in ways that are consistent with their schematic understanding.
18
Q
define rationalisation
A
reconstructive errors that occur when the witness consciously tries to work out what actually happened.
19
Q
define confabulation
A
reconstructive errors that occur when the witness unconsciously uses schemas or PEI to fill in the gaps in their memory.
20
Q
define source monitoring error
A
inaccurate recall resulting from a witness’s inability to distinguish between different sources of information in their memory.
21
Q
define weapon focus effect (WFE)
A
the tendency for witnesses to focus their attention on a weapon, thereby decreasing the amount of information they encode about other features of the crime
22
Q
Why is Loftus et al. (1987) important to eyewitness testimony WF?
A
Loftus et al (1987) demonstrated the WFE by showing that participants had better recall of a man holding a chequebook than of a man holding a gun in a restaurant context
23
Q
Why is Maass and Kohnken (1989) important to eyewitness testimony WF?
A
Maass and Kohnken (1989) showed that the WFE could also occur in field settings, using a staged event where participants were holding either a pen or a syringe (the ‘weapon’). Recall of the ‘nurse’ was better with the pen than the syringe. However, recall was not affected by the level of threat the participant was exposed to
24
Q
Why is Erikson et al. (2014) important to eyewitness testimony WF?
A
Erikson et al (2014) showed that the WFE occurs because the weapon is unexpected, not because it is a threat. They found that recall of photographs of a man holding a weapon was poorer than a control condition, but recall was also poorer when the man was holding a rubber chicken.
25
Why is Fawcett et al. (2013) important to eyewitness testimony WF?
Fawcett et al. (2013) reviewed police and court records of crimes where weapons had and had not been used. They found no evidence to suggest that witnesses testimony was poorer in weapons cases. This might suggest that the findings of laboratory studies are the result of a lack of ecological or task validity.
26
What research methods are used in eyewitness testimony WF?
Laboratory experiments
| Field experiments
27
define experiment
a study in which an independent variable is manipulated systematically to create two or more conditions and a dependent variable is measured under the different conditions to see if the IV has an effect. Other variables are controlled across the conditions so they do not affect the DV.
28
define laboratory experiment
an experiment carried out in an environment that is designed specifically for conducting research.
29
define field experiment
an experiment carried out in a setting that is a natural environment for the participants.
30
define generalisability
the extent to which a finding can be applied to samples and settings other than those used in the study.
31
define replicability
the extent to which it is possible to repeat the procedure of a study exactly.
32
define reliability
the extent to which replicating a study leads to the same results.
33
define validity
the extent to which the study measured what it intended to measure (rather than e.g. the effect of a confounding variable).
34
Why is Loftus and Palmer (1974) important to research methods that are used to assess eyewitness effectiveness?
Loftus and Palmer (1974) established the experimental paradigm for studying EWT. L & P found that the verb used in the question affected the estimates the PPs gave. Strengths of L & P’s research include: (1) all PPs were exposed to the same target event, so the ‘base reality’ of the event was clear, and no differences in estimates could be attributed to PPs being exposed to different target events or different viewing conditions; (2) the questioning of the PPs was standardised, so differences in estimates could only be due to the change in verb. A weakness of the study is that L & P used a video for their stimulus, which reduces mundane realism - real witnesses and there ‘in real life’ and may experience strong emotions which affect how they encode and recall the target event.
35
Why is Maass & Kohnken (1989) important to research methods that are used to assess eyewitness effectiveness?
Maass & Kohnken (1989) adapted the L & P paradigm in a field experiment on the WFE. They used a simulated event with unsuspecting PPs. This allowed them to increase mundane realism and ecological validity but still retain a good degree of control. Their study raises ethical issues, as PPs were required to be deceived, and were put under stress.
36
Why is Fawcett et al (2013) and Yuille and Cutshall (1986) important to research methods that are used to assess eyewitness effectiveness?
Fawcett et al (2013) and Yuille and Cutshall (1986) studied real witnesses to violent crimes and found little evidence for the WFE or the influence of PIE, respectively. They suggest that the experience of being directly involved means that the variables studied in the lab have relatively little effect on real witness memory.
37
What research methods are used to assess eyewitness effectiveness?
Lab / Field experiments
38
define standard police interview
the way police interview witnesses without psychological training.
39
define cognitive interview
a way of interviewing witnesses to maximise accurate recall, using knowledge of how memory works.
40
define context reinstatement
asking the witness to imagine themselves back at the scene of the target event. The aim is to increase the availability of retrieval cues.
41
define retrieval cues
elements of the environment or the witnesses internal state that were encoded along with details of the target event at the time it happened. They can be used as a route to retrieving information about the target event. Usually, the witness is asked to imagine themselves back at the scene of the event and prompted to think about what was happening and how they were feeling.
42
define free recall
where the witness is asked to describe as much as they can about the target event, without the interviewer interrupting them.
43
Why is Geiselman et al. (1986) important to cognitive interviewing?
Geiselman et al. (1986) found that a cognitive interview led to a 30% increase in correct statements, with no increase in errors. This showed that it was superior to both standard police interviews and interviews under hypnosis.
44
Why is Fisher et al. (1987) important to cognitive interviewing?
Fisher et al. (1987) found that, compared to a standard interview, CI led to an increase in correct statements but also an increase in errors. This raises questions about the benefits of CI.
45
Why is Memon et al. (2010) important to cognitive interviewing?
Memon et al. (2010) reviewed the available literature (65 experiments) and did a meta analysis. They found that CI substantially increased the production of correct information but also produced a small but significant increase in errors compared to the standard interview. They suggests that errors could be reduced if the witness is clearly told not to guess if they don’t know something and it is stressed that it is OK to say ‘I don’t know’ if they can’t recall something.
It is important to note that most of the studies reviewed by Memon et al. were laboratory experiments using staged events or videos. There is relatively little research using real witnesses in real contexts, partly because police have been slow to adopt CI on a systematic way. Even where police have been trained in CI, they tend not to use it effectively in practice.
46
What research methods are used in cognitive interviewing?
Lab experiments
47
define ethical interviewing
a set of police interviewing techniques intended to establish the truth about what happened, induce suspects to confess if guilty but avoid unethical practices.
48
define coercion
the use of pressure, force or the threat of force to make someone do something.
49
define confession
an admission by a suspect that they are guilty of the crime of which they have been accused.
50
define false confession
an admission of guilt that is untrue. This can happen (1) because the individual wants deliberately to mislead the police; (2) because they have been coerced to confess e.g. using torture or threats; or (3) because they genuinely believe they are guilty even though they are not e.g. as a result of a psychotic delusion.
51
define miscarriage of justice
a situation where the judicial process of a criminal trial has produced a provably incorrect outcome. This term most often applies where a person has been wrongly convicted of an offence and punished (and, consequently, a guilty person has gone unpunished).
52
define thrown out
if evidence is thrown out of court, then either the prosecution or the defence has been forbidden from using it in their case
53
Why is Kebbell et al. (2010) important to ethical interviewing?
Kebbell et al. (2010) found that offenders reported being more likely to confess when police used (1) presenting evidence of the offence; (2) ethical interviewing; and (3) displays of humanity. They reported being less likely to confess when police used displays of dominance
54
Why is Roberts (2011) important to ethical interviewing?
Roberts (2011) found that the use of aggressive interviewing strategies is likely to result in unreliable information and can be detrimental to police-community relations.
55
Why is Walsh & Milne (2010) important to ethical interviewing?
Walsh & Milne (2010) found that PEACE-training resulted in more detailed testimony and better adherence to legal requirements of interviewing. However, PEACE training did not result in better planning of interviews or better rapport with suspects
56
What research methods are used with ethical interviewing?
Content analysis of police interviews
| Observations of police interview
57
define defendant
a person who has been charged with a crime and is being tried in court.
58
define jury
a group of people, chosen to represent the general public, who decide collectively whether the prosecution has proven that the defendant is guilty.
59
define bias
a tendency to favour one side in an argument or when making a judgement.
60
define stereotype
a type of schema that causes the individual to judge people on their membership of a specific social group and to treat all members of that group as similar.
61
define halo effect
the tendency to stereotype physically attractive people as possessing other positive characteristics e.g. honesty, friendliness etc.
62
define benevolent sexism
the tendency to treat women more leniently than men accused of the same crime.
63
define double deviance
the tendency to treat women more harshly than men if they violate gender role expectations.
64
define ingroup
any group to which the individual judges themselves as belonging to. According to social identity theory, people are motivated to look favourably on in-group members.
65
define outgroup
any group where the individual judges themselves to belong to a corresponding in-group
66
Why is Taylor and Butcher (2007) important to jury decisions when thinking of defendant characteristics?
Taylor & Butcher (2007) found that, in a scenario where a male defendant was accused of a ‘mugging’ (robbery), that unattractive defendants were more likely to be judged guilty than attractive ones. However, they did not find that black defendants were more likely to be judged guilty than white ones.
67
Why is Castellow et al. (1990) important to jury decisions when thinking of defendant characteristics?
Castellow et al. (1990) found that, where a man was accused of sexually harassing a woman, that PPs were twice as likely (83%) to convict the defendant when he was unattractive and the complainant was attractive as when the defendant was attractive and the complainant unattractive (41%)
68
Why is Wiest and Duffy (2013) important to jury decisions when thinking of defendant characteristics?
Wiest and Duffy (2013) found that, in real criminal cases, women and men tend to be treated differently, with women more likely to be judged guilty of manslaughter and men of murder. However, the treatment of women depended somewhat on how closely they fit the ‘traditional’ female gender role
69
Why is Mitchell et al. (2005) important to jury decisions when thinking of defendant characteristics?
Mitchell et al. (2005) did a meta-analysis of studies of the effect of ethnicity on jury verdicts. They found that jurors of various ethnicities were slightly more likely to judge a defendant guilty if they came from one of their ethnic outgroups
70
What are the research methods used in jury decisions when thinking of defendant characteristics?
Laboratory experiments using mock-jury situations are a common way of investigating this area
71
define pretrial publicity (PTP)
information about a criminal case that is known to the jurors before the trial begins. It usually comes from news media, but might also be things like local gossip about the case.
72
define juror bias
a tendency for a juror to favour one side in a criminal case when deciding their verdict.
73
define confirmatory bias
the tendency for people to pay more attention to information that is consistent with what they already believe. PTP may cause a juror to process evidence differently according to whether it confirms what they already believed from the PTP.
74
define source monitoring error
errors people make when attributing the source of their memories. Jurors may not be able to distinguish information they learned from PTP from information they were told in court.
75
Why is Padawer-Singer and Barton (1975) important to jury decisions when thinking of PTP?
Padawer-Singer and Barton (1975) found that that pps were significantly likely to convict the defendant in a mock-jury trial if they had first been exposed to newspaper articles that suggested the defendant was guilty.
76
Why is Steblay et al. (1999) important to jury decisions when thinking of PTP?
Steblay et al. (1999) did a meta-analysis of 44 studies of the effect of negative PTP on juries. In about half of the studies PTP significantly affected the outcome but in the other half PTP had no effect. They concluded that PTP only has a small overall effect on jury decisions
77
Why is Ruva & McEvoy (2008) important to jury decisions when thinking of PTP?
Ruva & McEvoy (2008) found that exposure to PTP did affect the verdict and the pps’ perceptions of the defendant’s credibility. They also found that pps tended to recall the PTP as being part of the trial evidence, showing that source-monitoring errors are a problem with PTP.
78
Why is Honess et al. (2003) important to jury decisions when thinking of PTP?
Honess et al. (2003) found that negative PTP affected pps’ feelings about the defendant rather than their memory of the facts of the case. This could lead to biased processing of evidence.
79
What research methods are used when considering jury trials and pretrial publicity?
PTP has often been investigated using laboratory experiments in mock-trial scenarios
80
define the limbic system
a set of brain structures including the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus and cingulate gyrus (in the PFC) which collectively generate emotional responses, including alarm, fear and anger.
81
define the amygdala
a structure found in both hemispheres which plays a key role in experiencing fear and understanding fear in other people.
82
define the prefrontal cortex
the frontmost part of the cerebral cortex, responsible for many ‘higher’ psychological functions like thinking, problem solving, planning and impulse control
83
define reductionism
the view that psychological processes can best be understood by breaking them down into more fundamental processes. The biological view of criminality is reductionist to the extent that it claims that complex social behaviours like aggression can be explained in terms of biological processes taking place in the brain.
84
Why is Siegel and Victoroff (2009) important when considering biological explanations of offending (the amygdala and brain abnormalities)?
Siegel & Victoroff (2009) reviewed the literature to identify 18 specific cases of criminal violence (including murder) that were related to brain tumours in brain areas related to aggressive behaviour, including the amygdala.
85
Why is Raine et al. (1997) important when considering biological explanations of offending (the amygdala and brain abnormalities)?
Raine et al. (1997) found that there were measurable differences in brain structure and functioning between NGRI murderers and non-criminal controls, including in the amygdala and frontal cortex.
86
Why is Raine and Yang (2006) important when considering biological explanations of offending (the amygdala and brain abnormalities)?
Raine and Yang (2006) carried out a review and meta analysis of brain-imaging studies of offending. They report that the most consistent findings have been (1) reduced volume and activity in the prefrontal cortex of offenders; and (2) asymmetric activity and reduction of amygdala volume in violent offenders.
87
Why is Pardini et al. (2013) important when considering biological explanations of offending (the amygdala and brain abnormalities)?
Pardini et al. (2013) compared men with normal and reduced amygdala volume in a longitudinal study. The men with smaller amygdalae consistently showed a higher level of aggression and violent behaviour and a higher level of psychopathic traits.
88
Why is Glenn et al. (2009) important when considering biological explanations of offending (the amygdala and brain abnormalities)?
Glenn et al. (2009) found that people with higher psychopathy scores tended to have lower activity in their amygdala during moral decision making tasks (i.e. a negative correlation).
89
What research methods are used when considering biological explanations of offending (the amygdala and brain abnormalities)?
Research in this area makes heavy use of brain imaging in quasi-experimental/correlational designs. Research using animal models has also been very influential.
90
define traumatic brain injury (TBI)
a change to the structure of the brain caused by penetration or physical impact.
91
define diffuse brain injury
widespread, small-scale damage to the brain that may not be obvious from a visual inspection or large-scale scan.
92
define cumulative brain injury
damage that results from repeated traumatic impacts, each of which only does a small amount of damage.
93
define prefrontal cortex
a set of brain structures involved in sophisticated processes like problem solving, planning and impulse control
94
Why is Schofield et al. (2006) important when considering biological explanations of offending (TBI)?
Schofield et al. (2006) found that 82% of a sample of Australian prison inmates had received a TBI, with 42% having lost consciousness. This compares with a prevalence of about 9% in the general population.
95
Why is Raine et al. (2005) important when considering biological explanations of offending (TBI)?
Raine et al. (2005) found that TBI was common in a sample of adolescent offenders. They also found that the ones with the more severe TBIs tended to continue offending into adulthood, whilst the less severely affected tended to stop
96
Why is Schofield et al. (2015) important when considering biological explanations of offending (TBI)?
Schofield et al. (2015) examined the medical and health records of nearly 30,000 individuals. Those who had a TBI early in their lives were significantly more likely to become offenders than those who had never had a TBI. This supports a causal link between TBI and offending, as the TBI occurred before the offending.
97
What research methods are used when considering biological explanations of offending (TBI)?
Research in this area is correlational or quasi experimental, as it would be impossible to randomly assign people to receive a TBI and see what happened. Some studies use secondary data from e.g. hospital and criminal records
98
define Jacob's syndrome
an alternative name for XYY syndrome.
99
define chromosome
a package of DNA. An organism’s genes are organised into chromosomes. Different species have different numbers of chromosomes. Humans usually have 46, arranged into 23 pairs, but people with XYY have 47.
100
define chromosomal atypicality
an unusual pattern in an individual’s chromosomes. These include XYY, XXY (Klinefelter’s syndrome) and XO (Turner’s syndrome). A chromosomal atypicality usually has an effect on the person’s physical characteristics and may also affect their psychological development or behaviour.
101
Why is Jacobs et al. (1965) considered important when thinking of biological explanations of offending (XYY syndrome)?
Jacobs et al. (1965) reported that, in prison populations, around 15 in every 1000 men had the XYY syndrome. They implied that it was substantially more prevalent in offenders than non-offenders.
102
Why is Witkin et al. (1976) considered important when thinking of biological explanations of offending (XYY syndrome)?
Witkin et al. (1976) looked for XYY males in the Danish population. They only found 12 cases. The XYY men were more likely to be involved in crime but (1) the difference between the XYYs and the XYs was not significant; (2) the XYYs involved in crime were not involved in violent crime.
103
Why is Stochholm et al. (2012) considered important when thinking of biological explanations of offending (XYY syndrome)?
Stochholm et al. (2012) compared criminality in XY, XYY and XXY males in Denmark. They found that XYY men were significantly more likely to have criminal convictions than the XY men. They found that social factors were a mediating factor and concluded that XYY has an effect on social factors like education, which then affects risk of criminality, so XYY does not lead directly to criminality.
104
Why is Re and Birkoff (2015) considered important when thinking of biological explanations of offending (XYY syndrome)?
Re and Birkoff (2015) reviewed all the evidence they could find relating to XYY and criminality. They found little evidence for a direct link between chromosomes and crime. Like Scochholm et al., they concluded that XYY increases the risk of a range of developmental problems, which, in turn, increase the risk of criminal involvement via social factors like education and home environment.
105
What research methods are considered when thinking of biological explanations of offending (XYY syndrome)?
Research into XYY and criminality uses correlational designs, where researchers look for associations between the syndrome and criminal behaviour. This raises concerns about socially sensitive research, as participants may unfairly be stigmatised
106
define personality
an individual’s pattern of behavioural tendencies that are stable over time and across situations.
107
define extraversion
an individual’s level of need for sociality and stimulation. People who are high in E need lots of stimulation from their environment; those who are low in E prefer to avoid stimulating environments.
108
define neuroticism
an individual’s level of reactivity to negative events. People who are high in N react strongly to negative stimuli and are prone to anxiety and depression.
109
define psychoticism
an individual’s level of callousness and unfeelingness towards other people. People who are high in P are not disturbed by the thought of acting selfishly or in ways that may hurt others.
110
Why is Eysenck et al. (1977) considered important when thinking of biological explanations of offending (personality)?
Eysenck et al. (1977) found that different categories of convicted offender had significantly different scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). For example, violent and property offenders had high E scores, whilst con men had high P scores. This suggested that personality scores could predict offending to some extent.
111
Why is McGurk & McDougal (1981) considered important when thinking of biological explanations of offending (personality)?
McGurk & McDougal (1981) compared delinquent and non-delinquent college students and found that the delinquents had higher E, N and P scores than the non-delinquents
112
Why is Farrington et al. (1982) considered important when thinking of biological explanations of offending (personality)?
Farrington et al. (1982) reviewed findings up to that date and found that the relationship between E, N and offending was very inconsistent, with different samples showing different patterns (e.g. in self-reported offenders E is high but N is not, whereas in convicted offenders N is high but E is not).
113
Why is Cale (2006) considered important when thinking of biological explanations of offending (personality)?
Cale (2006) conducted a meta-analysis of 52 studies that found that the only personality trait that reliably correlates with offending is impulsiveness, which is only a narrow subset of what Eysenck called ‘extroversion’.
114
What research methods are considered when thinking of biological explanations of offending (personality)?
Personality research in the Eysenck tradition relies heavily on the use of self-report questionnaires and correlational/quasi-experimental research designs.
115
define social learning
the process of learning by observing others.
116
define differential association
the idea that some people learn to become criminals because they associate with different people from non-criminals.
117
define imitation
reproducing a behaviour that previously was observed.
118
define definition
a sociological term for what psychologists call an attitude. ‘Pro-criminal definitions’ in Akers’s SLT are the attitudes that a person has that say that offending is an acceptable thing to do. Pro-criminal definitions are not necessarily learned from other criminals e.g. a person’s parents might express approval for e.g. violent acts even if they do not act violently themselves.
119
define reinforcement
any consequence that strengthens a definition or behaviour
120
define vicarious reinforcement
a consequence that is observed for someone else. E.g. a person’s pro-criminal definitions might be strengthened by seeing that someone else has got rich by stealing.
121
Why is Bandura et al. (1966) considered important when thinking of social explanations of offending (SLT)?
Bandura et al. (e.g. 1966) showed that children were more likely to imitate aggressive acts after watching an adult model if they had seen the model reinforced rather than punished.
122
Why is Akers et al. (1979) considered important when thinking of social explanations of offending (SLT)?
Akers et al. (1979) found, in a survey of 3000 US adolescents, that young people were significantly more likely to take recreational drugs and drug alcohol underage if they had peers that also did.
123
Why is Farrington et al. (1996) considered important when thinking of social explanations of offending (SLT)?
Farrington et al. (1996) did a longitudinal study of 397 families and found that having a first-degree relative with a criminal conviction was a very strong predictor of whether an individual would also commit crimes.
124
Why is Kanz (2015) considered important when thinking of social explanations of offending (SLT)?
Kanz (2015) found that exposure to violent media (e.g. films and video games) was associated with more pro-violence attitudes in children, but only in those where parental empathy was lacking.
125
What research methods are considered when thinking of social explanations of offending (SLT)?
Research into SLT and offending has either tended to use lab-based experiments like Bandura’s, or large scale surveys of self-reported offending, like Akers’s..
126
define labelling
a social process in which an individual is publicly put into a category that stigmatises them, with consequences for how that person views themselves and how they are treated by others.
127
define self-fulfilling prophecy
a process in which a prediction comes true because the prediction was made. For example, if people think that John is ‘destined’ to be a criminal they (1) treat him in ways that make him likely to offend, e.g. by provoking or excluding him; and (2) watch him closely so they are more likely to catch him doing something criminal (even if the act concerned is something many other people also so). So, ultimately, John becomes a criminal because people expected him to become one.
128
define self concept
the ideas a person has about who they are. It encompasses things like the judgements they make about themselves and the expectations they have of their own behaviour. Someone with a negative self-concept is likely to act in negative ways.
129
Why is Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) considered important when thinking of social explanations of offending (labelling and self fulfilling prophecies)?
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) found that labelling a randomly picked selection of school children as ‘late bloomers’ caused their teachers to treat them in a different way, causing the children to suddenly increase in their academic achievement.
130
Why is Chiricos et al. (2007) considered important when thinking of social explanations of offending (labelling and self fulfilling prophecies)?
Chiricos et al. (2007) found that, even if people had committed exactly the same effect, their chance of reoffending depended on how they had been labelled. Those given a more serious ‘felony’ conviction were significantly more likely to reoffend than those given a less serious ‘misdemeanour’ conviction.
131
Why is Restivo and Lanier (2013) considered important when thinking of social explanations of offending (labelling and self fulfilling prophecies)?
Restivo and Lanier (2013) found that, among young people who had been involved in crime, those who got arrested and charged subsequently developed a more deviant self-concept and became involved in more serious offending.
132
Why is Ramoutar and Farrington (2007) considered important when thinking of social explanations of offending (labelling and self fulfilling prophecies)?
Ramoutar and Farrington (2007) found that the effect of criminal labelling on boys in Trinidad was relatively small but, for girls, being labelled as criminal, especially by their parents, made them 20 times more likely to commit offences
133
Why is McGrath (2014) considered important when thinking of social explanations of offending (labelling and self fulfilling prophecies)?
McGrath (2014) found that, in young female offenders, them more stigmatised they felt immediately after sentencing, the more likely they were to reoffend. Stigma did not have the same effect on male offenders.
134
What research methods are considered when thinking of social explanations of offending (labelling and self fulfilling prophecies)?
It would be unethical to deliberately label people criminals to see what happened, so experimental studies are rare. Correlational studies are much more common, many of these using self-reports and secondary data from police and court records.
135
define psychological formulation
a structured approach to identifying the factors underlying (e.g.) persistent criminal behaviour which leads to an understanding of the changes needed and the mechanisms/treatments required to bring about change.
136
define functional analysis
a process of understanding offending by looking for the function/purpose that offending serves for the offender.
137
define offence analysis
a process of assessing an offender in order to identify the internal and external factors that support and trigger offending.
138
define a 'Risk-Needs-Responsivity' Model (RNR) of case formulation
an approach to case formulation based around the assessment of the offender’s risk level, an identification of the needs he has (in relation to offending) and the choosing of the treatment options most likely to work.
139
define a "Good Lives Model (GLM) case formulation
an approach to case formulation based around the assumption that crime is a maladaptive way for the person to meet their psychological needs, and helping them pursue positive goals in a pro-social way.
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Why is Whitehead et al. (2007) considered important when thinking about case formulation in forensic psychology?
Whitehead et al. (2007) report a case study/case formulation of ‘Mr C’, who had a long criminal record. They relate his offending to his adverse childhood experiences of violence and sexual abuse within and outside the family. They formulated his case using the GLM, helping him identify positive goals life forming productive friendships and helping others. In prison, Mr C completed 100 hours of cognitive-behavioural therapy to change his criminal thinking patterns. After his release, he way fairly successful at avoiding further offending. When he did lapse, he used his ‘safety plan’ to ensure that he did not re-engage with his criminal friends, and instead sought support from people who would help him.
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Why is Connell (2015) considered important when thinking about case formulation in forensic psychology?
Connell (2015) reports a case study/case formulation of ‘Connor’, a repeat offender with a heroin and alcohol problem. Connell used functional analysis to show that Connor had learned that drug use served to protect him from the feelings of shame and rejection he felt from his foster parents when he was unable to find a job. The aim of the case formulation was to help Connor find and keep a job when he was released from prison, as this would help him avoid further offending. Connell does not report whether Connor was successful in avoiding crime after release. Rather, she discusses how the use of functional analysis gives us an insight into the history of Connor’s persistent offending
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What research methods are considered when thinking about case formulation in forensic psychology?
Case formulation is based on the use of the case study approach: using multiple sources of qualitative and quantitative data to understand the unique individual
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define drug treatment
a chemical deliberately ingested in order to alter the functioning of the body. In psychology, most drugs of interest act on the nervous system to alter some aspect of thinking, feeling or behaviour.
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define anti-androgen (AA)
a drug that reduces sexual drives by blocking the activity of male sex hormones like testosterone on the nervous system
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define Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone Antagonist (GnHRA)
a drug that reduces sexual drives by causing GnRH levels to rise. GnRH stimulates the release of other sex hormones. However, GnRH agonists cause GnRH to increase so much that the hormone becomes depleted and the both cannot release any more. After this point, GnRH levels drop off sharply, and so lower levels of other sex hormones are relesed.
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define Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI)
an antidepressant drug that works by blocking the reuptake of serotonin by presynaptic terminals. This causes the levels of serotonin in the synapses to increase. SSRIs have been used with sex offenders
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Why is Maletzky et al. (2006) considered important when thinking about biological treatments for offenders?
Maletzky et al. (2006) examined the effect of the drug MPA on reoffending among three groups of male sex offenders (1) those recommended for MPA treatment who got it; (2) those recommended for MPA treatment who did not get it; and (3) a control group of men not recommended for MPA treatment. They found that MPA had a significant effect on reoffending. Those who took MPA were less likely to reoffend and committed no new sexual offences. Those taking MPE were also less likely to have violated their parole conditions and less likely to have been returned to prison.
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Why is Winder et al. (2018) considered important when thinking about biological treatments for offenders?
Winder et al. (2018) measured the responses of sex offenders to SSRIs (an antidepressant) and AA (a hormone suppressant). Over six months, levels of sexual thoughts, feelings and behaviour fell significantly. The change occurred faster in the group receiving AAs. but both groups ended up at about the same level
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Why is Lievesley et al. (2014) considered important when thinking about biological treatments for offenders?
Lievesley et al. (2014) did a thematic analysis on semi-structured interviews with 13 male sex offenders receiving drug treatment. They found that, as treatment went on, there was a reduction in sexual content in the offenders’ interviews. The offenders reported that a reduction in their own sexual preoccupations had allowed them ‘breathing space’ to think more clearly about their offending and its impact on their victims
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What research methods are considered when thinking about biological treatments for offenders?
Although RCTs are commonly used to test drugs in clinical psychology, there are remarkably few RCTs of drugs for sex offenders. Quasi experiments and correlational studies are more common.
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define cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
an approach to changing people that aims to alter how they think by altering how they act. CBT is used with offenders and also in clinical psychology.
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define anger management training (AMT)
a CBT for violent offending. It is based on the idea that violent offenders (1) interpret the behaviour of others as a threat or provocation; (2) don’t recognise their own anger and the role it plays in their offending; and (3) lack the skills to control their own anger and deal with difficult situations in a nonviolent way. AMT has three phases: (1) cognitive preparation; (2) skills acquisition; (3) application practice.
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define cognitive preparation
part of AMT where the offender learns about the role anger plays in their crimes and how to recognise when they are getting angry. This may involve direct instruction and also structured reflection about their own anger (e.g. keeping an ‘anger diary’).
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define skills acquisition
part of AMT where the offender learns how to (1) deal with their own anger e.g by controlled breathing; (2) deal with difficult situations e.g. through social skills or assertiveness.
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define application practice
part of AMT where the offender tries out their new skills, usually in role play, until they are well learned
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Why is Howells et al. (2005) considered important when thinking about cognitive-behavioural treatments for offenders?
Howells et al. (2005) evaluated the effectiveness of AMT in male violent offenders in an Australian prison. The treatment group received 20 hours of AMT over 10 sessions. The control group were on a waiting list for treatment. A range of self-report measures were used to assess the impact of AMT on understanding of anger, angry thoughts and feelings and aggressive behaviour. Overall, the study did not find that AMT had much impact. Howells et al. concluded that AMT in their study had limited effectiveness because (1) the programme was too short; (2) many participants had limited motivation to change; (3) lots of the offenders had multiple problems, like drug dependency; and (4) AMT may only work with a specific subgroup of offenders.
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Why is Aos et al. (2006) considered important when thinking about cognitive-behavioural treatments for offenders?
Aos et al. (2006) reviewed reoffending rates among 1500 offenders receiving Anger Replacement Therapy (another CBT). They found a 24% reduction in reoffending compared with offenders who had no therapy. They estimated that every $1 spent on ART led to $11.66 in savings to the victims of crime and the government
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Why is Henwood et al. (2015) considered important when thinking about cognitive-behavioural treatments for offenders?
Henwood et al. (2015) reviewed seven high-quality studies of CBT for offending. They found that AMT was significantly more effective than no treatment, and also more effective than other CBTs. Overall, AMT reduced the risk of reoffending by 23% for general offending and 28% for violent offending. Medium intensity AMT was more effective than high intensity therapy.
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What research methods are considered when thinking about cognitive-behavioural treatments for offenders?
The ideal way to evaluate AMT would be using randomised controlled trials. However, for practical reasons, much research in this area has used quasi experimental designs
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define practice
the use of specialised knowledge in the workplace. In psychology, it generally means using psychology to assess or deliberately change people’s behaviour, as opposed to doing research studies or developing theory (although practitioners may also be doing these things).
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define fitness to practise
having the appropriate skills, knowledge, character, and health to be able to fulfil the professional role. A profession who never updated their training would not be maintaining their fitness to practise.
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define professional boundaries
the lines between what is and is not permissible when working in a professional role with clients. This covers both legal boundaries (i.e. a professional is not supposed to break the law) but also the lines between e.g. work and friendship. For example, a clinical psychologist who started a romantic relationship with a client would be breaking professional boundaries.
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What research methods are considered when thinking about the HCPC Principles and Ethics in Forensic Psychology?
The HCPC principles are used to regulate the psychological professions legally. They work alongside the BPS Code of Ethics.
Clinical psychologists are also licenced by the HCPC, so similar points apply.
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which studies are considered when studying eyewitness testimony 1: PEI?
Loftus and Palmer (1974); Loftus et al. (1978); Sutherland and Haine (2001); Dodd and Bradshaw (1980); Greene et al. (1982)
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what studies are considered for eyewitness testimony: WF?
Loftus et al. (1987);
| Maass & Kohnken (1989); Erikson et al. (2014); Pickel et al. (2008); Pickel et al. (2006); Fawcett et al. (2013)
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what studies are considered when studying cognitive interviewing?
Geiselman et al. (1986); Fisher et al. (1987); Memon et al. (2010)
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what studies are considered when studying ethical interviewing?
Kebbell et al. (2010); Roberts (2011); Walsh & Milne (2010)
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what studies are considered when studying jury decisions: characteristics of the defendant?
Taylor & Butcher (2007); Castellow et al. (1990); Wiest and Duffy (2013); Mitchell et al. (2005)
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what studies are considered when studying jury decisions: pre-trial publicity?
Padawer-Singer and Barton (1975); Steblay et al. (1999); Ruva & McEvoy (2008); Honess et al. (2003)
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What studies were considered when studying biological explanations of offending: amygdala and brain abnormality?
Siegel & Victoroff (2009); Raine et al. (1997); Raine and Yang (2006); Pardini et al. (2013); Glenn et al. (2009)
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What studies are considered when studying biological explanations of offending: traumatic brain injuries?
Schofield et al. (2006); Raine et al. (2005); Schofield et al. (2015)
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what studies are considered when studying biological explanations of offending: XYY syndrome?
Jacobs et al. (1965); Witkin et al. (1976); Stochholm et al. (2012); Re and Birkoff (2015)
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what studies are considered when studying biological explanations of offending: personality?
Eysenck et al. (1977); McGurk & McDougal (1981); Farrington et al. (1982); Cale (2006)
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what studies are considered when studying social explanations of offending: social learning theory?
Bandura et al. (e.g. 1966); Akers et al. (1979); Farrington et al. (1996); Kanz (2015)
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what studies are considered when studying social explanations of offending: labelling and self fulfilling prophecy?
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968); Chiricos et al. (2007); Restivo and Lanier (2013); Ramoutar and Farrington (2007); McGrath (2014)
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What are the 15 HCPC Principles?
1. be able to practise safely and effectively within their scope of practice
2. be able to practise within the legal and ethical boundaries of their profession
3. be able to maintain fitness to practise
4. be able to practise as an autonomous professional, exercising their own professional judgement
5. be aware of the impact of culture, equality and diversity on practice
6. be able to practise in a non-discriminatory manner
7. understand the importance of and be able to maintain confidentiality
8. be able to communicate effectively
9. be able to work appropriately with others
10. be able to maintain records appropriately
11. be able to reflect on and review practice
12. be able to assure the quality of their practice
13. understand the key concepts of the knowledge base relevant to their profession
14. be able to draw on appropriate knowledge and skills to inform practice
15. understand the need to establish and maintain a safe practice environment
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what studies are used when studying cognitive-behavioural treatments for offenders?
Howells et al. (2005); Aos et al. (2006); Henwood et al. (2015)
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what studies are considered when thinking of biological treatments for offenders?
Maletzky et al. (2006); Winder et al. (2018); Lievesley et al. (2014)
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what studies are used when studying case formulation in forensic psychology?
Whitehead et al. (2007); Connell (2015)
