Key terms Flashcards
(106 cards)
1
Q
who established methodological behaviourism?
A
john watson
2
Q
who made radical behaviourism?
A
skinner
3
Q
why was there such an emphasis on behaviourism at the time?
A
reaction to freud who discreditted psych as a science
4
Q
discuss skinner
A
respondent/ classical conditioning –> association
how the consequences of actions impact the probability of actions being respeated
5
Q
how to do a behavioural assessment
A
(1) define target behaviour precisely- how we wish to change the frequency, specific behaviour
(2) Identify functional relations between the target behavior and its antecedents and consequences. (when it happens, who is there, what was said, how did they act, environment, use multiple incidents so we can see if there is a pattern) do a functional analysis
(3) create intervention, test and recreate if needed
6
Q
4 term contingency
A
EO- establishing operation (mjust consider broader context of how reinforcers will work)
A- antecedent
B- behaviour
C- consequences
7
Q
reinforcement
A
the procedure of providing consequences for a behavior that increase or maintain the frequency of that behavior
8
Q
positive reinforcer
A
a reinforcing event in which something is added following a behavior
9
Q
negative reinforcer, example?
A
a reinforcing event in which something is removed following a behavior
a patient wont eat unless spoon fed, so the feeders start dropping food on her dress whenever they feed her. the woman will then feed herself in order to avoid getting her dress dirty
10
Q
extinction
A
Behavior is maintained by its consequences. Therefore, preventing the consequences that maintain a behavior should weaken it. Withholding the reinforcers that maintain a target behavior
11
Q
punishment
A
the procedure of providing consequences for a behavior that decrease the frequency of that behavior- these are rarely used and never too severe
12
Q
noam chomsky
A
an article criticising skinnerrian thinking (book called verbal behaviour).
13
Q
antecedents
A
triggers to a behaviour
14
Q
Continuous recording
A
method to count / record behaviour.
recording each and every occurrence of a target behavior within a given period. Do this for a prearranged amount of time. We also need to make sure we are choosing time period where the person is in the right context which we want to observe. Sometimes behaviour can be too frequent to even do this, e.g. foot tapping you couldn’t count this for an hour.
15
Q
interval recording
A
way to count or record behaviour
recording whether a behavior occurs during each of a series of short intervals within an observation period. Just tick if it does in the period of time under question.
16
Q
what does checking interobserver reliability allow us to do?
A
it means we can check that a behaviour has been defined correctly/ precisely enough that some instances of the behaviour cannot be missed
17
Q
two ways to plot behaviour rates
A
- simple frequency graphs: each data point indicates the number of times a behaviour occurred over a period of tim
- cumulative frequency graph: each data point indicates total number of times a behaviour occurred up to that time point
18
Q
what is single case experimental design?
A
SCED- a research design in which the behavior of an individual is compared under experimental and control conditions.
19
Q
why do we graph it rather than stats it?
A
we need practical significance not statistical
20
Q
types of SCED
A
A-B design
ABAB reversal design
multiple baseline design
alternating treatment design
21
Q
What is A-B design?
A
A- baseline then B- intervention
Not used very much as its hard to take account the confounding variables and no replication so we cant guarantee this is what caused the behaviour change
22
Q
ABAB reversal design
A
a single case design in which baseline and intervention conditions are repeated with the same person. Cant be used for really serious behavioural problems as you dont want the person to become dangerous again
23
Q
multiple baseline design
A
a single case design in which the effects of an intervention are recorded across situations, behaviors, or individuals.
This replicates the effects without returning to baseline. so a baseline in lots of different contexts then intervention in lots of different contexts
24
Q
Alternating treatment design
A
a single case design in which two of more interventions alternate systematically.
25
wash out effect
happens with ABAB design- think when irreversible changes are made from the first intervention
26
observational SCED
no intervention, a bit correlationy
27
changing criterion design
an initial baseline phase is followed by implementation of a treatment program delivered in a series of phases. Each phase has its own criterion rate for the target behavior, and once responding becomes stable an incremental shift in the criterion occurs to implement another phase.
28
how long should baselines and interventions be
as long as it takes to see stability
29
what are 6 types of data
Active experience
passive experience
active behaviour
passive behaviour
active physiology
passive physiology
30
difference between active and passive data
active data is self reported or where physioloogy is measured through sampling such as saliva assessed for cortisol
passive data is inferred through observation or no intense reporting (e.g. using a pedometer rather than an exercise diary). physiology is measured through temperature tracking or heart rate etc
31
experience data
mood, pain, fatigue, cogntitions, perceptions and appraisals
32
behaviour data
actions which are observable to others such as smoking
33
physiology data
intrna workings of the body and brain such as temp or hormone levels
34
primary reinforcer
reinforcers which are not dependent on their association with other reinforcers
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secondary reinforcer
reinforcers which are dependent on their association with other reinforcers.e.g. clicker training with treats, clicker is secondary reinforcer
36
a reinforcer is only a reinforcer if it ...
impacts behaviour change
37
is a reinforcer the same as a reward?
no, a reward is not necessarily reinforcing to everyone
38
natural reinforcer/ contingencies
where a behaviour is rewarding in itself for the impact it has on the body, e.g. running gives you adrenaline which is therefore reinforcing
39
4 problems with reinforcement
-bootleg reinforcement (e.g. reinforcment comes from someone other than you, this undermines the intervention)
-reliance on reinforcement (e.g. wont do it without, rarely a problem)
- behavioural contrast (e.g. reinforcing in one context doesn't always work in all contexts)
- inappropriate use (e.g. delivery drivers getting paid per delivery which teaches them to drive unsafely)
40
example of bootleg reinforcement
you reinforce a child to put their hand up more but every time you do the class laughs the class is reinforcing the had down behaviour
41
partial reinforcement effect
problem with extinction- ensuring all reinforcers are withheld every time otherwise it can maintain the behaviour at high rates, making it harder to eliminate. there will be increased resistance to extinction following intermittent reinforcement
42
problems with extinction
- uncontrolled reinforcement
- it can be slow, bad if behaviour is dangerous
- extinction burst, sudden increase in behaviour, gets worse before it gets better
- spontaneous recovery, target behaviour suddenly reappears
43
example of uncontrolled reinforcement (problem with extinction)
reinforcement is natural so how can you get rid of a natural reinforcer like adrenaline
44
differential reinforcment
Any procedure that combines reinforcement and extinction to change the frequency of a target behavior.
45
example of differential reinforcment
Rekers and Lovaas 1974- reduce ‘inappropriate’ gender role behaviour in a 5 year old. Craig was engaging in a lot of female mannerisms and the parents wanted him to stop as he was being bullied. Researchers used extinction to reduce the feminine behaviour and reinforcement to increase his masculine behaviour. Mother had an ear piece connected to he researchers, when he was feminine the mother ignored him and when he was masculine she paid him attention. The behaviour did seem to change.
46
what is punishment defined by?
its ability to reduce the behaviour
47
what is the hierarchy of punishers in ABA?
- reprimanding
- response cost
- time out
- overcorrection
- physical punishment
48
example and issue of reprimanding
-corrective feedback
- expressions of disapproval
ISSUE- could serve as attention so wont work if they want attention
49
example of response cost
if a person does something they they cannot have something, it costs them
50
over correction example
if they do something they have to do it over and over as punishment- if they pull out flowers then they have to replant the flowers over and over
51
physical punishment example in ABA
‘brief non injurious contact with the skin contingent on target behaviour’ no permanent damage or long lasting pain
Dorsey 1980- fine mist applied to the face of person with intellectual disabilities on self injurious behaviour (hand biting, skin tearing, banging head, scratching etc). The mist worked to reduce the amount of damage that severely disabled people were inflicting on themself. They then did a second experiment using mist and the word no, no then became enough to stop them from doing the behaviour
52
problems with punishment
- Negative side effects
Person using the punishment might become conditioned to be hated. The prson might fear you as they do the punishment. If you then back of when they are attacking then they will attack every time
- Inappropriate use
Use stronger than needed
Not doing it immediately doing the punishment too late after the behaviour
o Judge rottenberg centre in USA? Using electric shocks to control developmental disability student behaviours
53
when is a behaviour said to be under stimulus control?
when there is an increased probability that the behavior will occur in the presence of a specific antecedent stimulus
54
example of behaviour under stimulus control?
hearing the door bell increases the liklihood you will open the door
55
what is a discriminative stimulus and example of it
It is the stimulus which signals the availability of reinforcers.
e.g. Sound of the phone ringing is a discriminative stimulus, the behaviour of picking up the phone and putting it to your ear is reinforced when there is a phone ring.
56
what is the stimulus delta
Stimulus, in the presence of which a behaviour is not reinforced. When present if the behaviour was to occur will not reinforce you.
the behaviour of picking up the phone and putting it to your ear is not reinforced when there is no phone ring.
57
example of where traffic lights can be both stimulus delta and discriminative stimulus
behaviour = stopping the car
red light = discriminative stimulus
green light= stimulus delta
58
famous application of stimulus control
procedure to train soldiers in morse code in WW2 rather than just memorising.
59
famous application of stimulus control
procedure to train soldiers in morse code in WW2 rather than just memorising. Every recruit hears the morse code and then has to write down on the sheet what the signal was. Immediately after their response the voice on the headphones gave them the correct response, recruit got an opportunity to compare their answer to the correct answer. If it was incorrect they had to write down the correct one. This was effective and then used throughout the war. The correct was a reinforcer effecting how quickly we learn therefore.
60
how do we do discrimination training
one behaviour, two antecedent stimulus conditions (a discriminative stimulus and stimulus delta)
61
what is a prompt
Prompts are supplementary stimuli given before or during the performance of a behaviour, that increases the likelihood that the person will engage in the correct behaviour at the correct time.
They offer a means to transfer stimulus control..
May also serve as a reminder
Ensures the behaviour occurs then we meet it with reinforcement
62
examples of response prompts
- Verbal prompt
- Modelling
- Physical guidance- e.g. helping your hand when you play the violin, gives you access to reinforcement !
- Gestural prompt
response prompts ADD something
63
stimulus prompts
prompts where the stimulus itself is modified in some way, nothing is in addition it is just modified to make it more likely. A stimulus prompt might involve a change in the SD or the S-delta (SΔ) that makes the SD more salient (more noticeable or conspicuous) and the SΔ less salient so that the person is more likely to respond to the SD
64
examples of stimulus prompts
- Movement prompts
- Position prompts (e.g. putting the thing you want them to point at closer to them)
- Redundancy prompts
65
prompt fading
Fading is one way to transfer stimulus control from the prompts to the SD. So the prompt is no longer necessary.
Ensures no over reliance on this prompt.
Transfers stimulus control back from the prompt to eh SD, we want the behaviour to be under the control of the SD.
66
different ways to do prompt fading and examples
- most to least (e.g. decreasing assistance)
- least to most (e.g. only provide help when absolutely needed then add more when needed)
- time delay (e.g. Constant prompt delay- e.g. where prompt is always given 3 seconds after SD or Progressive prompt delay- increase delay between SD and prompt as you go along
67
components of complexity of human behaviour
* Ambiguous antecedents
* people behave differently to the same discriminative stimulus depending on context
* there are sequencing behaviours (series of behaviors which had to occur in order for the behaviour to occur)
* Variability in responding
68
what is the purpose of shaping
Shaping is used to develop a behaviour that a person does not currently exhibit.
69
successive approximations (shaping)
we have a target goal and we start somewhere and make incremental improvements, each improvement we make is called a successive approximation, toward a target/ terminal behavior until the person exhibits the target behavior
70
what are four dimensions of behaviour which we can shape
topography (form of behaviour)
frequency
latency (time between onset of antecedent stimulus and the occurrence of the behaviour)
duration
71
example of shaping and successive approxinmations
Ghaemmaghami et al 2018- use shaping to help children engage in communication responses instead of aggression/ challenging behaviour. Arrow represents successive approximations. Shapes the topography of the response.
my way pls --> may i have my way pls --> excuse me may i have my way
72
what do we do if someone can immediately do the final steps of the shaping behaviour plan?
we don't make them undergo the whole shaping plan unless they make lots of errors
73
what are behaviour chains
We often engage in complex behaviour: multiple component responses. Each step leads to the next step, each step in the chain tells us that the next step is time to happen. each step serves as a discriminative stimulus for the next step. E.g. brushing your teeth
74
forward chaining
* The first step in the chain is the first training step, and then the second, third, and so on, until the entire chain has been taught. It is done chronologically, trained until mastery.
* Prompting starts at the first step and until each step is performed independently the rest of the chain is fully prompted.
75
backwards chaining
* The last step in the chain is the first training step, and then the second last, third last, and so on, until the entire chain has been taught. Reverse chronokogically order, do last step first.
* Prompting starts at the last step and until each step is performed independently the rest of the chain is fully prompted.
76
total task training chaining
o Each step taught independently we wont wait until mastery of any step we make sure each step is trained throughout.
77
why might we do backward rather than forward chaining
o Terminal reinforcer is accessed immediately when we do backward which may be good for people with intellectual disability or neurodevelopmental disorders. Must consider whether its good for the person to experience delayed reinforcement.
78
why would we do forward rather than backward chaining
when it makes logical sense for the person to be taught in chronological order and they will be fine with delayed reinforcement
79
generalisation
behaviour happening under non training conditions, trained behaviour generalises to different contexts
80
what is the difference between response and stimulus generalisation
stimulus generalisation- target behaviour is emitted in the presence of similar stimuli
response generalisation- untrained responses that are functionally equivalent such as hey, hi, hello
81
response maintenance
when the learner continues to perform the target behaviour after the intervention is terminated
82
what are stoke and baer's guidelines for generalisation
1. train and hope
2. sequential modification
3. introduce to natural maintaining contingencies (must reflect natural environment)
4. train sufficient exemplars (lots of conditions)
5. train loosely
6. use indiscriminable contingencies
7. program common stimuli
83
why do we need to reduce behaviour
- affects others/environment
- safety of someone is threatened
- the behaviour is hindering the persons ability to acquire new skills like going to school
- leads to restrictive living arrangements
84
behaviours can be seen as forms of communication with a function such as what?
get or avoid something
85
what are some examples of social positive reinforcement?
- gain attention
- gain access to a situation/ person/ group
86
give an example of social negative reinforcement
escaping a certain situation, if being next to someone who bullies you then you might misbehave so you can leave the room and them
87
what does the 'automatic' in negative and positive reinforcement mean? give example of both
automatic = the sensation from doing the action is reinforcing enough
- automatic positive reinforcement e.g. running
- automatic negative reinforcement e.g. itching
88
antecedent
what happened prior to the behaviour of concern
89
difference between proactive strategies and teaching alternative behaviours
- proactive strategies = implemented before the behaviour happens, to stop the behaviour from happening, maybe the function is not appropriate
- teaching alternative behaviours are implemented just as the behaviour starts to occur. another way to get what they want tha is functionally equivalent
90
give an example of teaching alternative behaviour
training individual with disability to press a button for attention rather than self harming. Also simply gave him more attention
91
trauma informed applications
understanding how past experiences may influence an individual's liklihood of wanting the reward, e.g. fear of the adults letting them down which is more upsetting than not getting the reward
offering enhanced choices so they have more control
92
3 reasons why we do self management
- Engage in a controlling behaviour to influence a future behaviour
- Establish a behaviour that does not have immediate positive consequences, but has a future desirable outcome - Can be applied for behavioural deficits or excesses
like running regularly, smoking
93
steps to self management
define target behaviour precisely
functional assessment (immediate contingencies which block delayed positive outcome like the reinforcers from tv)
set goals
self monitor
antecedent and consequence control
evaluate and reevaluate
94
example of antecedent control and consequence control
antecedent control- eating a snack midday so you arent too hungry to go for a run before dinner
consequence control- join a running group
95
examples of whether benefit outweighs the costs of changing a behaviour
- teaching autistic children masking is socially draining for them and may result in poorer mental health, not worth the benefit
- making a child go home because they wear the wrong socks
96
when thinking about trying to reduce a negative behaviour we must consider...
WHY that person is doing the undesirable behaviour, the child wearing the wrong socks may need financial help so the punishment of going home will not solve this.
97
examples of different MOs for drinking and how these can lead to different drinking behaviours
motivating operations for drinking
- nervousness --> alcohol
- thirst --> water
98
how can we change the SD to change behaviour despite the MO?
if we get rid of the avalibility of something like getting rid of all the sugar in the house then even though the MO is craving sugar the consequence of this MO (having cake) is not available
99
difference between behavioural modification and behaviour analysis
behavioural modification is when we manipulate consequences alone, it is easier
behavioural analysis takes longer and is a values driven practice, understand why a person does what they do
100
4 types of differential reinforcement
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible behavior (DRI)
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative behavior (DRA)
Differential Reinforcement of Other behavior (DRO)
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)
101
differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviour
DRI - this procedures entails only reinforcing behaviors that are incompatible with the problem behavior while withholding reinforcement for the problem behavior. In other words, only behaviors that cannot occur simultaneously with the problem behavior are reinforced.
e.g. Kevin engages in out of seat behavior so his teacher decides to implement a DRI procedure. She decides to reinforce a behavior that is incompatible with out of seat behavior. Sitting in his seat is chosen as the incompatible behavior because it cannot occur at the same time as out of seat behavior. Kevin only receives reinforcement (ex. token) for sitting in his seat while reinforcement is withheld when Kevin is out of his seat.
102
differential reinforcement of alternative behaviour
DRA - this procedure entails reinforcing a behavior that serves as a viable alternative for the problem behavior, but is not necessarily incompatible with the problem behavior.
Example: Sarah engages in shouting out behavior after her teacher poses a question to the class. Her teacher decides to use a DRA procedure in which Sarah is only reinforced (ex. called on) for raising her hand to answer a question. This behavior is an alternative to shouting out, but is not incompatible as both the problem behavior and the alternative can occur at the same time. However, raising her hand is a more socially acceptable alternative.
103
differential reinforcement of other behaviour
DRO - this procedure entails delivering reinforcement whenever the problem behavior does not occur during a predetermined amount of time.
Example: Julie pulls strands of hair out of her head when she is completing independent work. Her teacher decides to use DRO in order to reinforce the absence of pulling her hair. Using this procedure, the teacher sets a timer for three minutes on Julie's desk. If Julie does not pull her hair for the entire three minutes then she is reinforced. If Julie does pull her hair, she is not reinforced and the timer is reset.
104
differential reinforcement of low rates
DRL - this procedure is used to reduce the frequency of a behavior but not eliminate it from the learners repertoire entirely. This is typically reserved for behaviors that are socially acceptable but may occur too often. Using this procedure, reinforcement is delivered if a behavior occurs below a predetermined criteria
Example: James uses socially appropriate behavior to greet peers but does so up to ten times in one class period. His teacher decides to use DRL to lower the rate of his behavior but she does not want to eliminate it completely. She decides to deliver reinforcement (ex. computer time) to James if he greets peers five or fewer times during the class period. If he greets peers more than five times, he does not receive reinforcement.
105
3 side effects of punishment
- producing undesirable emotional reactions
- punisher becomes associated with punishment
- imitiation
106
discrete trial training
Discrete Trial Training (DTT) is an intervention strategy characterized by its highly structured, one-on-one teaching environment in which tasks are broken down and taught in small increments. DTT is typically conducted with a teacher and learner seated adjacent to one another at a table. There are four parts of DTT that are presented in the following order:
Discriminative Stimulus
Child Response
Consequence
Intertrial Interval
can also involve prompts
e.g. touch something you can eat, good youre touching something that you can eat, now show me eating, what are you doing? eating well done
