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Philosophy of Science > Key Terms > Flashcards

Key Terms Flashcards

1
Q

Five features of scientific knowledge

A

Generalizability, controllability, objectivity, methodology, parsimony

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2
Q

ontology

A

The study of being or existence and its basic categories and relationships. It seeks to determine what entities can be said to exist, and can we group these entities to similarities and differences.

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3
Q

Epistemology

A

the theory of how we can acquire knowledge about reality. It asks what knowledge is, and how it is obtained.

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4
Q

Philosophy of Science

A

a field of science that deals with what science is, how it works, and the logic through which we build scientific knowledge.

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5
Q

Causality

A

Explaining an outcome Y in terms of the necessary and/or sufficient conditions (X) for Y to take place. Causality has a strong connection with determinism, which states that if we know all applicable laws of nature as well as the initial conditions, we can perfectly predict what will happen in the future.

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6
Q

Causal explanation

A

Seeks to understand an event by identifying the causes that bring it about. It involves identifying the relationship between different variables and how changes in one variable lead to changes in another.

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7
Q

Intentional explanation

A

Seeks to understand an event by referring to the intentions, beliefs and desires of the agents involved. Focuses on the mental states of individuals and how these states influence their behaviour.

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8
Q

Functional explanation

A

Seeks to understand an event by highlighting its role or function within a larger system or context. Focuses on the purpose or purposeful organization of a structure or process.

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9
Q

Social ontology

A

investigates the nature of social entities and the relationships among them. Focuses on understanding the fundamental nature of social reality and the structures that make up the social world.

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10
Q

Ontological/episemological questions

A

Ontological questions are questions about the study of being and existence: for example, are natural and social reality the same or are they different? Epistemological questions are about the study of knowledge: how can we acquire reliable knowledge about social reality?

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11
Q

Positive theory

A

Ambition to explain the world as it is. Makes explicit positive expectations towards the world. Has a theory-to-world direction of fit.

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12
Q

Normative theory

A

Ambition to justify the world as it ought to be. Makes explicit normative expectations towards the world. Has a world-to-theory direction of fit.

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13
Q

Logical argument (definition, form)

A

A series of statements meant to establish a claim. A statement is any unambiguous declarative sentence about a fact about the world. All statements have truth value. A logical argument is a process of creating a new statement from one or more existing statements. This is called logical inference

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14
Q

Truth preservation

A

With a logically valid argument, true premises always lead to true conclusions.

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15
Q

Valid argument

A

an argument where all premises are true

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16
Q

Denying the consequent

A

Form of an argument: If A, then B – not B – Therefore, not A. Example: If Socrates is a god, he is immortal: Socrates is not immortal: therefore, Socrates is not god.

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17
Q

Affirming the antecedent

A

Form of an argument: all A are B – X is A – Therefore, X is B. Example: All Dutch people love football: Joost is Dutch: therefore, Joost loves football.

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18
Q

Affirming the consequent

A

Form of a fallacious argument: If A then B – X is B – Thus, X is A. Example: If it’s Friday, I go to the gym: I went to the gym today: therefore, today is Friday.

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19
Q

Denying the antecedent

A

Form of a fallacious argument: If A then B – Not A – Therefore, not B. Example: If you work hard on this course, you will get a high grade: You did not work hard on this course: therefore, you will not get a high grade.

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20
Q

Logical positivism

A

Scientific knowledge is the only kind of factual knowledge and that all traditional metaphysical doctrines are to be rejected as meaningless

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21
Q

Verification

A

The process or criterion by which a statement or proposition is confirmed to be true or proven to be valid.

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22
Q

Rationalism (epistemology)

A

All knowledge stems from human rational thinking. We use our mind to discover something.

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23
Q

Empiricism

A

knowledge is primarily derived from observation, sensory experience (seeing, feeling) and experimentation

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24
Q

idealism

A

all knowledge comes from experience, and we need the ability to structure the experience

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25
Q

linguistic turn

A

move away from traditional metaphysical and epistemological questions and a turn towards the analysis of language as the central concern of philosophy

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26
Q

metaphysics

A

a branch of philosophy that explores fundamental questions about the nature of reality, existence, causation, time, space, and the relationship between mind and matter

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27
Q

synthetic statement

A

Truth of a statement depends on matters of fact, e.g. this circle has a diameter of 10 meter. Method of verification: observation (empirical truth)

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28
Q

Analytical statement

A

Truth of statement depends on the logical structure of a statement, e.g. this circle is round. Method of verification: Logical analysis (logical truth)

29
Q

The requirement of logical reducibility

A

For every statement in a system of knowledge to be true, you should be able to use logic and through logic only to go back to individual experience. If a statement cannot be reduced through logic to observation, it should not be scientific, therefore should not be in the system of knowledge.

30
Q

The unity of science ideal

A

proposes that diverse scientific disciplines can be integrated into a unified, coherent framework. The idea is to establish a common language, methodology, and set of principles that can be applied across all scientific domains, promoting a holistic and interconnected understanding of the natural world. The unity of science ideal seeks to bridge the gaps between different branches of science, aiming for a comprehensive and unified scientific worldview.

31
Q

Theoretical concepts and conditions to accept them in the system of knowledge

A

the criteria or standards that must be met for these theoretical concepts to be considered valid and incorporated into the broader framework of scientific knowledge. These conditions typically include empirical evidence, experimental confirmation, logical consistency, and adherence to established scientific principles.

32
Q

Intension of concepts

A

the conjunction of general properties that together define a concept.

33
Q

Extension of concepts

A

the set of all (real-life) phenomena that the concept refers

34
Q

Reflective concepts

A

concept makes up the properties (e.g. virus causes all symptoms)

35
Q

formative concepts

A

properties make up the concept (e.g. the properties of a democracy make up a democracy)

36
Q

Induction logic

A

draws general conclusion from a finite number of observations. New information can change the truth value of the conclusion

37
Q

deduction logic

A

draws specific conclusions through referring to general rules. New information has no influence upon the truth value of the conclusion

38
Q

The hypothetical-deductive method (empirical cycle)

A

using induction to generalize and reach empirical law. Through logic develop new hypotheses. This is the method used to develop scientific knowledge

39
Q

Theoretical language vs. observational language

A

Theoretical language refers to the abstract and often mathematical concepts used to formulate scientific theories, while observational language involves the description and interpretation of empirical observations and experimental results. Theoretical language deals with theoretical constructs and models, whereas observational language deals with the direct depiction of observable facts and phenomena.

40
Q

truth-likeliness versus truth

A

truth is a binary concept: a statement is either true or false based on its correspondence with reality. Truth is only reserved for individual observations or finite samples. On the other hand, truth-likeness is a measure of how closely a statement or theory aligns with the truth, acknowledging that some statements may be more accurate or closer to the truth than others.

41
Q

Popper’s criticism of logical positivism and the adjustments in the standard view

A

if a statement cannot be logically deduced (from what is known), it might nevertheless be possible to logically falsify it.

42
Q

falsification

A

the process of demonstrating that a statement, theory, or hypothesis is false or incorrect by providing evidence or counterexamples that contradict it.

43
Q

searchlight theory

A

Preconceptions are unavoidable when observing. Theories and concepts function as search-light theories. They guide us in what to look for and influence the reporting of what is observed

44
Q

empirical content

A

the amount of information within a statement. The less empirical content, the more likely it is going to be true.

45
Q

The relationship between the degree of confirmation of a statement and its empirical content

A

the higher the truth-likeliness, the lower the degree of confirmation (reaches 0).

46
Q

the problem of induction

A

questions how one can logically justify the expectation that the future will follow patterns established by prior observations

47
Q

critical rationalism

A

A philosophical model rooted in falsification, based on trial and error. Rationalist element: use active thinking to develop theories that say as much as possible about reality (maximal empirical content). Critical element: empirically test these theories as sharply as possible.

48
Q

Quine-duhem thesis

A

scientific hypotheses are not tested in isolation but rather as part of a larger theoretical network. Therefore, when experimental predictions conflict with observations, it’s not always clear which specific hypothesis or part of the theoretical framework should be revised. This challenges the traditional idea of a straightforward and isolated testing process in science.

49
Q

can observations falsify a theory

A

What solution we choose to solve the conflict between theory and observation depends on pragmatic considerations rather than principled ones. Either definition or observation is false.

50
Q

kuhn and paradigms

A

Theory of the paradigms is reflective of how scientific development looks like in real life. Evolution of knowledge within boundaries of a paradigm, until anomaly presents itself

51
Q

4 elements of a paradigm

A
  1. Symbolic Generalizations allow for theories to be depicted using symbols
  2. Exemplars – examples of how to apply the theory
  3. Scientific Values – values as in what we collectively believe to be good or bad
  4. Methodological Descriptions – How things must be done in the paradigm, e.g., how observations can be made and what the requirements are for something to constitute an observation
52
Q

anomaly

A

a violation of the paradigm induced expectations that govern normal science

53
Q

normal science vs. revolutionary science

A

normal science is science which takes place within the boundaries of an existing paradigm, and is good for a steady cumulative growth of knowledge. Revolutionary science takes place within the change of paradigms due to an anomaly, which causes revolutionary growth.

54
Q

4 theories of truth

A
  1. Correspondence theory of truth: the truth of a statement depends on its correspondence with reality. Truth of synthetic statements (matter-of-fact). E.g. the circle is round.
  2. Coherence theory of truth: truth of a statement depends on its coherency to what we already know. Truth of analytical statements, truth of logic and math.
  3. Consensus theory of truth: truth is what we collectively agree upon
  4. Pragmatic theory of truth: truth depends on pragmatic considerations
55
Q

the ideal of positive science

A

Key Question: Can there be a science based on observation and logic alone? The answer is no, because of theoretical concepts and the problem of induction. We can’t accommodate these problems by adjusting the model, because we a. can only falsify (popper) or b. we cannot even falsify, because we can always decide to sacrifice the falsifying observation, and this can even be rational (pragmatism) (Quine-Duhem)

56
Q

explaining vs. understanding

A

explaining means taking on a third-person perspective, while understanding means taking on a first-person perspective.

57
Q

Rational choice theory and its assumptions

A

rational choice theory presumes that each agent is fully self-interested and perfectly rational. In an explanatory model, agents will make a decision with the outcome that gives them the most satisfaction/utility.

58
Q

Ontological individualism versus methodological individualism

A

ontological individualism states that only individual natural persons exist, and that social phenomena are simply the aggregate outcomes of the actions and behaviours of individuals. Methodological individualism states that social phenomena such as money do really exist but are explained from the actions and behaviours of individuals.

59
Q

Strategic rationality vs. parametric rationality

A

strategic rationality is a form of rationality that takes into consideration the rational choices of other persons, who in turn take into consideration others. Parametric rationality assumes that the choices of others are known in advance

60
Q

game theory

A

game theory tries to explain patterns of behaviour and institutions from interdependent rational choices with strategic rationality. An example is the prisoner’s dilemma.

61
Q

nash-equilibrium

A

the best possible choice you can arrive at through the logic of rationality. You cannot change your choice without lessening your position.

62
Q

pareto-optimality

A

the choices people may make that realize optimal welfare within a game theory. In a prisoner’s dilemma, the pareto-optimum and the nash-equilibrium is different.

63
Q

agency theory

A

agency theory exists if there is a separation between decision-making (by the agent) and being exposed to the consequences of those actions (the principal).

64
Q

agency relationship

A

the relationship between the agent and the principal

65
Q

solutions to the agency problem

A

monitoring/bonding costs or residual loss, borne by the principal

66
Q

agency costs in corporate governance

A

Monitoring costs (board of directors, shareholder activism, disclosure), bonding costs (variable compensation), residual loss (empire building, value loss due to scandals)

67
Q

3 issues with functional explanation

A
  1. Only admissible when a general causal feedback system exists
  2. Assumes the existence and influence of some kind of higher order regulative system
  3. Assumes the explanans to be a necessary condition
68
Q

Sociol ontology of institutions

A

institutional facts come to exist because of our collective intentions towards them, which gives them social meaning. E.g. money: social value of money goes beyond intrinsic value of a paper note. Our intentional acceptance of it as money makes it money.

69
Q

collective intentionality

A

individuals within a group share a common intention or goal, influencing their collective actions and behaviours. It highlights the cooperative and coordinated nature of group activities, emphasizing the role of shared mental states in shaping the behaviour of the collective.

Philosophy of Science (1 decks)

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