Key Terms Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
What is the A* to C economy?
A
A system at which schools concentrate their efforts on those pupils they see as most likely to gain five A*-C grades at GCSE and so boost the school’s league table position.
2
Q
What is ageism?
A
The negative stereotyping of people on the basis of their age.
3
Q
What is alienation?
A
Where an individual or group feels socially isolated and estranged because they lack the power to control their lives and realise their true potential.
4
Q
What is assimilation?
A
An approach to immigration policy that believes immigrants should adopt the language, values, and customs of the ‘host community’ or country in which they settle.
5
Q
What is banding?
A
A form of streaming.
6
Q
What is a beanpole family?
A
A family that is vertically extended but not horizontally extended. For example, grandparents, parents and children, but not aunts, uncles or cousins.
7
Q
What is the birth rate?
A
The number of live births per thousand of the population per year.
8
Q
Who are the bourgeoisie?
A
A Marxist term for the capitalist class, the owners of the means of production. (factories, machinery, raw materials, land etc). Marx argues that the bourgeoisie’s ownership of the means of production also gives them political and ideological power.
9
Q
What is childhood?
A
A socially defined age-status. There are major differences in how childhood is defined, both historically and between cultures. Western societies today define children as vulnerable and segregate them form the adult world, but in the past they were a part of the adult society from an early age, These differences show that childhood is a social construction.
10
Q
What is a civil partnership?
A
The 2004 Civil Partnership Act gave same-sex couples similar legal rights to married couples in respect of pensions, inheritance, tenancies and property.
11
Q
What are close-ended questions?
A
Questions used in a social survey that allow only a limited choice of answers from a pre-set list. They produce quantitative data and the answers are often pre-coded for ease of analysis.
12
Q
What is a comparative method?
A
A research method that compares two social groups that are alike apart from one factor. For example, Durkheim compared two groups that were identical apart from their religion in order to find out the effects of religion on suicide rates. This is often used as an alternate to experiments.
13
Q
What is compensatory education?
A
Government policies such as Operation Headstart in the USA that seek to tackle the problem of underachievement by providing extra support and funding to schools and families in deprived areas.
14
Q
What was the comprehensive system?
A
A non-selective education system where all children attend the same type of secondary school.
15
Q
What are conjugal roles?
A
The roles played by the husband and the wife. Segregated conjugal roles are where the husband is the breadwinner and the wife is the homemaker, with leisure spent separately. In joint conjugal roles, husband and wife each perform both roles and spend their leisure time together.
16
Q
What is content analysis?
A
A method of analysing the content of documents and media output to find out how often and in what ways different types of people or events appear. For example, the Glasgow University Media Group (1976) used content analysis to reveal bias in how television news reported strikes.
17
Q
What is a controlled group?
A
In experiments, scientists compare a control group and an experimental group that are identical in all respects. Unlike the experimental group, the control group is not exposed to the variable under investigation and so provides a baseline against which any changes in the experimental group can be changed.
18
Q
What is a correlation?
A
When two or more factors or variables vary together; e.g. there is a correlation between low social class and low educational achievement. However, the existence of a correlation between two variables does not necessarily prove that one cause the other. It may simply be coincidence.
19
Q
What is a correspondence principle?
A
Bowles and Gintis’ concept describing the way that the organisation and control of schools mirrors and ‘corresponds to’the workplace in capitalist society. For example, the control teachers exert over pupils mirros the control managers exert over workers.
20
Q
What is the critical race theory?
A
It sees racism as a deep-seated feature of society resulting not merely from the attitudes of individuals but from institutional racism. CRT identifies several ways in which the education system is institutionally racist , including selection, the ethnocentric curriculum and assessment. CRT argues that racism cannot be removed by merely passing laws against it but requires direct action by oppressed groups.
21
Q
What is cultural capital?
A
The knowledge, attitudes, values and language, tastes and abilities that the middle class transmit to their children. Bourdieu argues that educational success is largely based on possession of cultural capital, thus giving middle class children an advantage.
22
Q
What is cultural deprivation?
A
The theory that many working class and black children are inadequately socialiswed and therefore lack the ‘right’ culture needed for educational success; e.g. their families do not instil the value of deferred gratification.
23
Q
What is culture?
A
All those things that are learnt and shared by a society or group of people and transmitted from generation to generation through socialisation. It includes shared norms, values, knowledge, beliefs and skills.
24
Q
What is a curriculum?
A
Those things taught or learnt in educational institutions. The overt or official curriculum includes the subjects, courses etc offered (e.g. the National Curriculum), while the hidden curriculum includes all those things learnt without being formally taught and often acquired simply through the everyday workings of school, such as attitudes of obedience, conformity and competitiveness.
25
What is death rate?
The number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.
26
What is deferred gratification?
Postponing immediate rewards or pleasures, generally with the aim of producing a greater reward at a later date, e.g. staying in to revise rather than going out with friends, which will bring success in exams.
27
What is demography?
The study of population, including birth, death, fertility and infant mortality rates, immigration and emigration, and age structure, as well as the reasons for changes in these.
28
What is dependency culture?
When people assume that the state will support them, rather than relying on their own efforts and taking responsibility for their families. The New Right see the welfare state as over-generous, encouraging people to remain unemployed and dependent on their benefits, and as responsible for the growing number of lone-parent families and rising crime rate.
29
What is dependency ratio?
The relationship between the size of the working population and non-working or dependent population.
30
What is deviance?
Behaviour that doe snot conform to the norms of a society or group. Deviance is a social construction and is relative. This means that what counts as deviant varies between groups and cultures and over time.
31
What is differentiation?
Distinguishing or creating differences between individuals or groups. In education, streaming is a form of differentiation that distinguishes between pupils on the basis of ability.
32
What is discrimination?
Treating people differently, whether negatively or positively, usually because they are of a particular social group.
33
What are documents?
There two types of documents. Public documents are produced by governments, schools and media etc. They include Acts of Parliament, school prospectuses, newspaper articles etc. Personal documents are created by individuals and often provide first-person accounts of events and experiences. They include diaries, letters, autobiographies etc. Both are used as secondary sources of qualitative date in sociological research.
34
What is domestic labour?
Work performed in the home, such as childcare, cooking, and cleaning. Functionalists see it as part of the expressive role performed by women, while feminists regard it as a major source of women's oppression.
35
What is a dual burden?
When a person is responsible for two jobs. Usually applied to women who are in paid work but are also responsible for domestic labour.
36
What is educational triage?
The process whereby schools sort pupils into 'hopeless cases', 'those will pass anyway', and 'those with potential to pass', and then concentrate their efforts on the last of those groups as a way to boost the school's exam league table position. Sorting may be based on stereotypical ideas about pupils' ability.
37
What is emotion work?
The work involved in meeting the emotional needs of other people e.g. looking after a sick child involves responding to emotional as well as physical needs. Some sociologists argue that women carry a triple burden of housework, paid work and emotion work.
38
What is empathy?
An understanding of how another person thinks, feels or acts, achieved by putting oneself in their place. Interactionists advocate the use of qualitative methods such as participant observation as a way of achieving empathy and obtaining data high in validity.
39
What is an empty shell marriage?
A marriage in name only, where a couple lives under the same roof but as separate individuals. It may occur where divorce is difficult for legal, religious or financial reasons, or where a couple decides to stay together for the sake of children.
40
What are ethics?
The issue of right and wrong; moral principles or guidelines. There are ethical objections to research that deceives or harms its participants or fails to obtain their informed consent.
41
What is an ethnic group?
People who share the same heritage, culture and identity, often including the same language and religion, and who see themselves as a distinct group e.g. the Bangladeshi community in Britain. As well as having ethnic minority groups, societies such as Britain have an ethnic majority.
42
What does ethnocentric mean?
Seeing or judging things in a biased way from the viewpoint of one particular culture e.g. the National Curriculum has been described as an ethnocentric curriculum since it tends to value white, western music, literature, languages, history, religion etc and disregards or does not value black and Asian cultures.
43
What is the exchange theory?
The idea that people create, maintain or break off relationships depending on the costs and benefits of doing so; e.g. a person may provide a relative with accommodation in return for childcare.
44
What are experiments?
A laboratory experiment is a test carried out in controlled conditions in an artificial setting to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables. A field experiment has the same aim but is carried out in a natural setting.
45
What is exploitation?
Paying workers less than the value of their labour. According to the Marxists, it is the process whereby the bourgeoisie extract surplus value or profit from the labour of the proletariat. Feminists see men as exploiting the domestic labour of women.
46
What is an expressive role?
The caring, nurturing, 'homemaker' role in the family. Functionalists that women are biologically suited to performing this role, but feminists reject this.
47
What is extended family?
Any group of kin (people related by blood, marriage or adoption) extended beyond the nuclear family.
48
What is family diversity?
The idea that there is a range of different family types, rather than a single dominant one (such as the nuclear family). It is associated with the postmodernist idea that in today's society, increasing choice about relationships is creating greater family diversity.
49
What are family practices?
The routine actions through which we create our sense of 'being a family member', such as doing the shopping or the DIY. morgan prefers the term to that of family structure because it conveys the idea that families are not 'things', but what their members actually do.
50
What is family structure?
The composition of a group of people who live together as a family unit. Structures include the nuclear family, the extended family, the reconstructed family, lone parent and same-sex families.
51
What are families of choice?
People who are not necessarily related by blood or marriage but who feel a sense of belonging together and who choose to define themselves as a family. For example, gay and lesbian people have created support networks of friends, relatives and so on who they regard as family.
52
What is fertility rate?
The total fertility rate is the average number of children women will have during their fertile years. For statistical purposes, this is defined as age 15-44.
53
What is feminism?
A sociological perspective and political movement that focuses on women's oppression and the struggle to end it. Feminists argue that sociology has traditionally taken a 'malestream' viewpoint that ignores women. Instead, they examine women's experiences and study society from a female perspective. There are different strands of feminism, including Marxist, radical, liberal and difference feminism.
54
What is Fordism?
A type of industrial production based on a detailed division of labour, seeing closely supervised, low-skilled workers and assembly-line technology to mass-produce standardised goods. Named after the car manufacturing techniques first introduced by Ford Motor Company in the early 20th century.
55
What is a function?
The contribution that a part of society makes to the stability or well-being of society as a whole. For example, according to Durkheim, one function of religion is to give individuals a sense of belonging to something greater than themselves and so integrate them into society.
56
What is a functional fit?
Parsons' theory that, with industrialisation, the structure of the family becomes nuclear to fit the needs of industrial society for a geographically and socially mobile labour force.
57
What is functionalism?
A consensus perspective on sociology that sees society as based on shared values into which members are socialised. It sees society as an organism, each part performing functions to maintain the system as a whole; e.g. the family and education system perform socialisation functions.
58
What is gender?
The social and cultural characteristics of men and women. Unlike sex differences, which are biological and inborn, gender differences in behaviour are cultural in origin and learned through gender role socialisation. Definitions of feminism and masculinity are socially constructed and vary between cultures and social groups.
59
What are gender domains?
The tasks and activities that boys and girls see as 'territory' of their respective genders; e.g. mending a car is seen as within the male gender domain. Children's beliefs about gender domains are shaped by their early experiences and adults' expectations.
60
What is globalisation?
The idea that the world is becoming increasingly interconnected and barriers are disappearing, e.g. as a result of instantaneous communication systems, deregulation of trade, the creation of global markets and global media and culture. Many see it as creating new risks, uncertainties and choices, and an increased rate of social change.
61
What is a habitus?
A concept introduced by Bourdieu. It refers to the learned, taken-for-granted ways of thinking, acting and being shared by a particular social class or group. It includes preferences for particular lifestyles and consumption patterns, and beliefs about what is realistic for members of that group to aim for.
62
What is the Hawthorne Effect?
Where the subjects of a research study know they are being studied and begin to behave differently as a result, thereby undermining the study's validity.
63
What is hierarchy?
An organisation or social structure based on a 'pyramid' of senior and junior positions and top-down control; e.g. an army with its different ranks and command from above.
64
What is a household?
A group of people who live together and share things such as meals, bills, facilities, or chores, or one person living alone.
65
What is a hypothesis?
An untested theory of explanation, expressed as a statement. Sociologists seek to prove or disprove hypotheses by testing them against the evidence.
66
What is an ideal pupil?
An image held by teachers of the kind of pupil they prefer to teach: bright, hardworking, cooperative and so on. Teachers are likely to see white, middle-class pupils as closest to this ideal.
67
What is identity?
The individual's sense of self, influenced by socialisation and interactions with others; a sense of belonging to a community. Postmodernists see identity as a choice that individuals make from among different sources of identity, such as gender, ethnic group, religion, sexuality, leisure interests, nationality etc.
68
What is ideology?
Originally a Marxist idea meanign a set of beliefs that serve the interests of a dominant social group by justifying their privlieged position. The term usually implies that the beliefs are false or only partially true.
69
What is immediate gratification?
A preference for immediate pleasure or reward, without regard for the longer term consequences; e.g. going out with friends instead of doing homework.
70
What is impression management?
Involves manipulating the impression of ourselves that we give to others.
71
What is industrialisation?
The shift from an agricultural economy to one based on factory production.
72
What is an individualisation thesis?
This argues that as a result of the weakening of the influence of traditional structures and norms (such as those governing personal relationships), individuals are now freer to make their own life choices. This is leading to more family diversity, risk and instability. By contrast, the connectedness thesis argues that we are not simply isolated individuals: socials structures such as class and gender still limit choice and diversity.
73
What is individualism?
The belief that the individual is more important than the group or the community. In modern and postmodern society, individualism becomes more important than in traditional society and individuals' actions are influenced more by calculations of their own self-interest than by a sense of obligation to others.
74
What is infant mortality rate?
The number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand live births per year.
75
What is informed consent?
Where those taking part in a study have agreed to do so and understand the purpose of the study, the uses to which its findings may be put, and its possible effects.
76
What is institutional racism?
Discrimination that is built into the everyday workings of institutions such as schools and colleges. This discrimination may be unconscious rather than deliberate, but this is a deeply ingrained, taken-for-granted part of the institution's culture.
77
What is the instrumental role?
The breadwinner or provider role in the family. Functionalists see this as the ma's role.
78
What is interactionism?
A sociological perspective that focuses on small-scale (micro level) interactions between individuals and groups, rather than on the large scale workings of society. Interactionists seek to understand the meanings that social actors give to actions and situations, usually by using qualitative research methods.
79
What is interpretivism?
A term covering a range of perspectives including interactionism. Interpretivists focus on how we construct our social worlds through the meanings we create and attach to events, actions and situations. They favour qualitative methods and see human beings as fundamentally different from the natural phenomena created by scientists, in that we have free will, consciousness and choice.
80
What is an interview schedule?
The list of questions to be asked in an interview. It is useful because it allows some standardisation of the interviewing process, since all interviewers use the same schedule of questions.
81
What are interviews?
A method of gathering information by asking questions orally, face-to-face or by telephone. Structured interviews use pre-set, standardised, usually close-ended questions producing quantitative data. Unstructured interviews are more like a guided conversation and use open-ended questions producing qualitative data. Semi-structured interviews use both types of question.
82
What is labelling?
The process of attaching a definition or meaning to an individual or group; e.g. Teachers may label a pupil as a 'trouble maker'. Often the label is a stereotype that defines all members of a group in the same way. The concept is widely used in the study of deviance, metal illness and education.
83
What is legitimation?
Justifying something by making it seem far and natural. This is the main function of ideology. Marxists argue that institutions in a capitalist society such as education, the media and religion are 'ideological state apparatuses' whose function it is to legitimate inequality.
84
What are life chances?
The chances that different social groups have of obtaining those things society regards as desirable (e.g. Educational qualifications) or of suffering those things regarded as undesirable (e.g. Low income) . Statistics on education, health, income etc show that such opportunities vary by class, gender and ethnic group.
85
What is a life course analysis?
An approach focussing on the meanings family members give to life events and choices, e.g. Deciding to leave home, get divorced etc. It uses unstructured interviews to uncover these meanings and understand people's choices about relationships and how these may lead to family diversity.
86
What is life expectancy?
How long on average people who are born in a given year can expect to live.
87
What is 'living apart together'?
Couples who are in a significant relationship, but not married or cohabiting. Some sociologists suggest that 'living apart together' may reflect a trend toward less formalised relationships.
88
What is a longitudinal study?
Study of a sample of people (sometimes called a panel) in which information is collected at regular intervals over and extended period of time; e.g. The National Child Development Study has been running since 1958. These studies usually use questionnaires or interviews, but other methods may also be employed.
89
What is meant by 'macro-level'?
Theories such as functionalism and Marxism that focus on the large scale, i.e. On the social structure as a whole or on the relationships between social institutions like the education system and the economy. These theories see the individual as shaped by society.
90
What is marketisation?
The policy of introducing market forces of supply and demand into areas run by the state, such as education and the National Health Service. The 1988 Education Reform Act began the marketisation of education by encouraging competition between schools and choice for parents.
91
What is Marxism?
A conflict perspective based on the ideas of Karl Marx (1818-83). It sees society as divided into two opposed classes, one of which exploits the labour of the other. In capitalist society. The bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat. Marx predicted the proletariat would unite to overthrow capitalism and create a classless society. Marxist sociologists argue that institutions such as education and the media function to maintain capitalism.
92
What is material deprivation?
Poverty; a lack of basic necessities such as adequate diet, housing clothing or the money to buy these things. In education, material deprivation theory explains working class under-achievement as the result of lack of such resources e.g. Parents are unable to afford educational aids, overcrowding deprives children of a quiet study area etc.
93
What is meritocracy?
An educational or social system where everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed and where individuals' reward and status are achieved by Theo leaders own efforts rather than ascribed by their gender, class or ethnic group.
94
What is meant by 'micro-level'?
Theories such as interactionism that focus on small-scale, face-to-face interaction, e.g. Between teacher and pupils in a classroom. These theories see individuals constructing society through their interactions.
95
What is migration?
Involves the movement of people from place to place. It can be internal, within a given society, or transnational, crossing national frontiers. Migrants my settle permanently in a new place, stay temporarily, or move to and fro between places (circular migration).
96
What is mobility?
Movement, change of position. Sociologists distinguish between geographical mobility, one which people move from one place to another (e.g. In search of work), and social mobility, in which they change position or status in a hierarchy or stratification system. Functionalists argue that the geographical and social mobility of the nuclear family enable it to meet the needs of industrial society.
97
Who are model minorities?
A term used to describe minority ethnic groups, such as Chinese and Indian pupils, who achieve above average results. Gillborn argues that the achievements of model minorities are wrongly used to justify the claim that the education system cannot be institutionally racist.
98
What is modernism?
Modernist perspectives (e.g. Functionalism, Marxism and positivism) believe that society has a fairly clear-cut, predictable structure and that is possible to gain true and certain scientific knowledge of how society functions. This knowledge can be sued to achieve progress to a better society.
99
What is a moral panic?
An over-reaction to a perceived problem where a group is labelled as a threat to society's values or 'folk devil'. The media play an important part by exaggerating the scale of the problem and channelling demands that something can be done about it. However, steps taken to deal with the problem may 'amplify' it.
100
What does multicultural mean?
A society or institution that recognised and gives value to different cultures and/or ethnic groups; e.g. Multi-cultural education teaches children about the cultures of other groups, not just the dominant or majority culture.
101
What is the myth of meritocracy?
Functionalists argue that the education system is meritocratic, but Bowles and Gintis claim that meritocracy is an ideology legitimating inequality by falsely claiming that everyone has an equal opportunity and that unequal rewards are the 'natural' result of unequal ability.
102
What is natural change?
The difference between the number of both and the number of deaths in a population, resulting in a natural increase or natural decrease.
103
What is net migration?
The difference between the number of immigrants entering a country and the number of emigrants leaving it.
104
What is neo-liberalism?
The theory that competition, choice and privatisation are the most efficient way to run the economy, free from state regulation. It favours low taxation and reduced state spending on education, healthcare etc. Individuals are seen as consumers who are free to make their own choices (e.g. Choice of school, or whether to apply for university) and obliged to live with the consequences.
105
What is the New Right?
A conservative political perspective whose supporters believe in self-reliance and individual choice, rather than dependence on the state. They believe in applying free market principals, e.g. The marketisation of education, and argue that generous welfare benefits encourage the growth of an underclass.
106
What is new vocationalism?
The idea that education should be primarily about meeting the needs of the economy, especially by equipping young people with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values needed to prepare her for work. Since the 1970s it has given rise to educational initiatives such as the Youth Training Scheme, BTEC and vocational GCSEs.
107
What is non participant observation?
A primary research method where the observer records events without taking part in them; e.g. A sociologist might observe and record his gender roles influence children's play without taking part. In sociology, participant observation is used much more often.
108
What are norms?
Social rules, expectations or standards that govern the behaviour expected in particular situations. Norms may be formal (e.g. Written laws or rules) or informal (e.g. Rules of politeness). Each culture has detailed norms governing every aspect of behaviour.
109
What is the nuclear family?
A two-generation family of a man and woman and their dependent children, own or adopted.
110
What is objectivity?
The absence of hair or preconceived ideas. It implies that we can look at things as they really are, without our opinions or values getting in the way (and thus we can get at the truth). Positivists believe sociology can achieve objectivity by modelling itself in the natural sciences, using methods that keep sociologists detached from their research subjects.
111
What are official statistics?
Quantitative data collected by the government m. They can be gathered either by registration (e.g. The law requires parents to register births) or by official surveys (e.g. The ten-yearly Census of the entire population)
112
What are open-ended questions?
Questions in a social survey that allow respondents to answer as they wish, in their own words (e.g. 'How did you feel about being excluded from school?'). Answers are harder to analyse because they cannot be pre-coded.
113
What is operationalisation?
The process of turning a sociological concept or theory into something measurable. For example, a sociologist studying the effect of social class on educational achievement might use parental occupation to measure the concept 'social class'.
114
What is parentocracy?
Literally, 'rule by parents'. The concept is associated with marketise education systems, which are based on the an ideology of parental choice of school. Middle-class parents may benefit from parentocracy because they have more economic and cultural capital and are better placed to exercise choice.
115
What is participant observation?
A primary research method in which the sociologist studies a group by taking a role within it and participating in its activities. It may be overt, where other participants are aware of the researchers true identity and motive. Alternatively, it may be covert, where the sociologist's identity and purpose are kept secret.
116
What is patriarchy?
Literally, rule by the father. Feminists use the term to describe a society based on male domination; a system or ideology of male power over women. Children liberationists argue that children are victims of 'age patriarchy' - the domination of fathers, or adults generally.
117
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trial run, usually of a social survey, conducted before the main study. It's basic aim is to iron out any problems, clarify questions and their wording, give interviewers practice etc, so that any necessary changes can be made before the main study is carried out.
118
What is polarisation?
A process that results int he creation of two opposite extremes, e.g. Pupils' responses to labelling and streaming in schools can create a pro-school and an anti-school subculture. In the study of stratification, Marx describes how in capitalist society the class structure becomes polarised into a wealthy bourgeoisie and impoverished proletariat.
119
What is population?
In a social survey? The population (sometimes called the 'survey population') is all the members of the group that the researcher is interested in; e.g. In a study of political opinions, the population may be the entire electorate.
120
What is positivism?
The belief that society is made up of 'social facts' that can be studied scientifically to discover laws of cause and effect. Durkheim took official statistics on suicide as social facts and tried to produce a law explaining why suicide rates vary between groups. With such knowledge, sociologists would be able to find solutions to social problems.
121
What is post-Fordism?
A type of industrial production. A highly skilled., adaptable workforce, combined with computerised technology, means that production takes the form of 'flexible specialisation', able to respond swiftly to changing consumer demands and to produce for a variety of small, customised 'niche' markets.
122
What is postmodernism?
A perspective that rejects the modernists' belief in progress and the view that we can have certain, true knowledge of society that will enable us to improve it. Society has become so unstable and diverse that it is now impossible to produce any absolute explanations. No one theory is 'truer' than any other; theories such as Marxism and Functionalism are merely viewpoints. Instead, sociology should concentrate on reflecting and celebrating social diversity.
123
What is primary data?
Information collected first hand by sociologist ms themselves did their own research purposes. Methods such as participant observation, social surveys and experiments are sources of primary data.
124
What is privatisation?
The transfer of industries or services previously owned by the state (the public sector) to ownership by private businesses (the private sector), who run them to make profit, e.g. The privatisation of parts of the education, such as the building and running of schools.
125
Who are the proletariat?
The working class in capitalist society. They own no means of production and are 'wage-slaves', forced to sell their labour-power to the bourgeoisie in order to survive.
126
What is a pure relationship?
One which exists solely to meet each partner's needs. Couples stay together for love, happiness or sexual attraction, rather than because of tradition or duty, or for the sake of children. According to Gidden, it is increasingly regarded as the only acceptable basis for a relationship.
127
What is qualitative data?
Information, usually expressed in words, about people's thoughts, feelings, motivations, attitudes, values etc. It is obtained from qualitative methods such as participant observation, unstructured interviews, diaries and letters. It aims to give an insight into what it is like to be in another person's 'shoes'.
128
What is quantitative data?
Information in numerical form (percentages, tables, graphs etc). Official statistics and the results of social surveys are two important sources of quantitative data.
129
What are questionnaires?
Lists of questions. Written or self-completion questionnaires are widely used in large-scale social surveys, where they may be sent out and returned by post. Questionnaires tend to use mainly close-ended questions with pre-codes answers for was of analysis.
130
What is racism?
A system of beliefs that defines people as superior or inferior, and justifies their unequal treatment, on the basis of biological differences such as skin colour. Individual racism refers to the prejudiced views and discriminatory behaviour of individuals. Institutional racism exists when the routine ways and organisation operates have racist outcomes regardless of the intentions of the individuals within it.
131
What is a reconstituted family?
A stepfamily, in which one of both partners has children from a previous relationship.
132
What is reliability?
A piece of research is reliable if it produces exactly the same results using identical methods and procedures. In general, quantitative methods such as experiments and questionnaires are more reliable than qualitative methods because they use standardised procedures that are easier to replicate; e.g. A questionnaire asking all respondents the same set of questions.
133
What is meant by the term 'representative'?
Typical; a cross-section. A researcher may choose to study a sample of a larger group. If the sample is representative, those in it will be typical of the larger group. This will allow the findings to be generalised, i.e. Applied to all members of the group, not just those in the sample.
134
What is reproduction?
The re-creation or continuation of something into future generations; e.g. Marxists argue that schooling reproduces the class structure by failing working-class pupils so that they take working-class jobs.
135
What is the reserve army of labour?
A Marxist concept describe groups who can be brought into the workforce when there is a labour shortage as the capitalist economy expands during a boom, and discarded when it contracts. Women were used as a reserve army of labour during the two world wars, returning after to their primary domestic role.
136
What is the response rate?
The proportion of those people included in a social survey who actually reply or respond to the questions asked. A high response rate is important to help ensure that findings are representative.
137
What is a role?
How someone who occupies a particular status is expected to act; e.g. Someone playing the role of bus driver is expected to drive safely, stop for passengers, charge the correct fares etc.
138
What is a sample?
A smaller group selected from the larger survey population to take part in a study. It may be too costly or time-consuming to study the whole population in which we are interested, so we choose a sample to study instead.
139
What is sampling?
The process of selecting a sample. The aim of sampling is usually to select a sample that is representative of the wider survey population, so as to allow the study's findings to be generalised. There are several types of sampling, e.g. Random, stratified random, quota and snowball sampling.
140
What is a sampling frame?
The list of people from which a sample for a social survey is collected, e.g. A school role could be the sampling frame for a survey of pupils. It should list all the members of the survey population that the sociologist is interested in studying, though this is not always possible; e.g. There is no complete list of all criminals (since some are not caught).
141
What is secondary data?
Information collected no by sociologists themselves for their own research purposes, but by other people or organisations for non-sociological purposes. Sociologists make extensive use of this 'second hand' information because it is often free or cheap, readily available and covers large numbers. Secondary sources of data include official statistics, the media and personal documents.
142
What is secularisation?
The decline of religion; the process whereby religious beliefs, practices and institutions lose their importance or influence; e.g. Fewer couples now marry in church and many people disregard religious teachings on issues like divorce, homosexuality etc.
143
What is selection?
In education, the process of choosing and allocating pupils to a particular school, class, stream etc; e.g. In the Tripartite System after 1944, the 11-plus exam selected pupils supposedly on the basis of ability for either grammar or secondary modern school.
144
What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?
Where a prediction made about a person or group comes true simply because it has been made. For example, in predicting that some pupils will do badly, teachers treat them in line with these lower expectations. This will discourage pupils from trying and make the prediction come true. The prediction is a form of labelling. It works by changing the individual's self image to bring it in line with the expectations that others have of him/her.
145
What is separatism?
A radical feminist idea that women should live independently of men as the only way to free themselves from the patriarchal oppression of the heterosexual family.
146
What is sexism?
Prejudice and discrimination on the grounds of sex; e.g. Seeing girls as better suited for courses in 'caring' subjects.
147
What is sexuality?
Sexual orientation; a person's sexual preference; e.g. Heterosexual, homosexual.
148
What are social action theories?
Seeing individuals as having free will and choice, and the power to create society through their actions and interactions , rather than being shaped by society. Interactionism is the best known theory of this type, postmodernism also has certain features in common with social action theories.
149
What is social class?
Social groupings or hierarchy based in differences in wealth, income or occupation. Marx identified two opposed classes in capitalist society, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Many sociologists use occupation to distinguish between a manual working class and a non-manual middle class. Some also identify an underclass between the working class.
150
What is social construction?
Where something is created by social processes, rather than simply occurring naturally. For example, interpretivists argue that official crime statistics are socially constructed through the interactions of police and suspects. When something is socially constructed, it is likely to vary historically and between cultures. Sociologists see childhood, gender, identity etc as social constructs.
151
What is social control?
The means by which society tries to ensure that it's members behave as others expect them to. Control can be formal (e.g. Laws) or informal (e.g. Peer pressure). Negative sanctions may be threatened or positive sanctions offered to encourage individuals to conform to society's norms and values.
152
What is social policy?
The actions, plans and programmes of government bodies and agencies that aim to deal with a problem or achieve a goal, e.g. Raising levels of educational attainment. Policies are often based on laws that provide the framework within which these agencies operate.
153
What is a social survey?
Any research method that involves systematically collecting information from a group of people (either a sample or the whole target population, e.g. The Census) by asking them questions. Usually, involves using written questionnaires or structured interviews and the questions are standardised.
154
What is socialisation?
The process by which an individual learns or internalises the culture of society. Primary socialisation occurs largely within the family and involves acquiring basic skills and values, while much secondary socialisation takes place within educational institutions and includes acquisition of knowledge and skills needed for work. Other agencies of socialisation include peer groups, the mass media and religion.
155
What are speech codes?
Patterson of says of using language. Bernstein argue that the working class use only the context-bound restricted code, with short grammatically simple sentences and limited vocabulary. The middle class use the context-free elaborated code, with complex sentences and which is able to describe abstract ideas. This code is used in education, giving middle-class children an advantage.
156
What is the stabilisation of adult personalities?
According to Parsons, one of the two functions of the nuclear family along with primary socialisation. It is a place where adults can relax and release tensions, enabling them to return to the workplace ready to meet its demands. This is functional for the efficiency of the economy.
157
What is a status?
A position in society. Ascribed status occurs when mere our position in society is determined by fixed characteristics that we are born with and cannot normally change, e.g. Gender, ethnicity or family of origin. Achieved status occurs where an individual's position is a result of their effort and ability, e.g. Getting into university.
158
What is a stereotype?
A simplified, one-sided and often negative image of a group of individual which assume that all members of that group share the same characteristics; e.g. The image that all black boys are disruptive and unruly.
159
What is stigma?
A negative label or mark of disapproval, discredit or shame attached to a person, group or characteristic. The stigma is used to justify the exclusion of the individual from normal social interaction; e.g. In the past divorcees were often stigmatised and excluded from 'respectable' company.
160
What is stratification?
The division of society into a hierarchy of unequal groups. The inequalities maybe of wealth, power and/or status. Stratification systems may be based on differences in social class, ethnic group, age, gender, religion etc. Members of different groups usually have different life chances.
161
What is streaming?
Where children are separated into different ability groups or classes and then each ability group is taught separately from the others for all subjects; the opposite of mixed-ability teaching.
162
What are structural theories?
See individuals as entirely shaped by the way society is structured or organised; e.g. Functionalism sees society as socialising individuals into shares norms and values that dictate how they will behave. Marxism and most types of feminism are usually regarded as structural theories.
163
What is a subculture?
A group of people within a society who share norms, values, beliefs and attitudes that are in some ways different from or opposed to the mainstream culture; e.g. An anti-school subculture formed by pupils in lower streams.
164
What is subjectivity?
Bias, lack of objectivity, where the individual's own viewpoint influences their perception or judgement. Interpretivists believe sociology is inevitably subjective, since it involves understanding other humans by seeing the world through their eyes.
165
What is symbolic capital?
A concept introduced by Bourdieu. It refers to the status, recognition and sense of worth we are able to obtain from others, especially those of a similar class position to us. Archer et al found that working-class girls gained symbolic capital from their peers by performing a hyper-heterosexual feminine, 'Nike' identity, but that brought conflict with the school's middle-class ethos.
166
What is symbolic violence?
A concept introduced by Bourdieu. It refers to the harm doing by denying someone symbolic capital (status and value), e.g. By defining their culture as worthless. Archer et al found that schools devalue working-class pupils' style preferences as tasteless.
167
What is a symmetrical family?
A nuclear family with more equal and joint conjugal roles, in which husbands participate in domestic labour as well as being breadwinners, and wives go out to work as well as being the homemakers. The couple spend their leisure time together and are more home-centred.
168
What is triangulation?
The use of two or more different methods of sources of data so that they complement each other, the strengths of one countering the weaknesses of the other and vice versa; e.g. Using both a qualitative method such as participant observation and a quantitative method such as structured interviews.
169
What was the tripartite system?
The system of secondary education created by the 1944 Education Act, based on three types of schools. The 11+ exam was used to identify pupils' aptitudes and abilities. Those identified as having academic ability (mainly middle-class) went to grammar schools, most working-class pupils when to secondary modern schools. Although replaced in most areas after 1965, the tripartite system continues in some.
170
Who are the underclass?
Those at the lowest level of class structure, the class below the working class with a separate, deviant subculture and lifestyle, including a high rate of lone-parent families, male unemployment and criminality.
171
What is the unit of consumption?
Unlike the pre-industrial family, the modern family no longer works together, but still consumes together as a single unit of group the income that it's members earn, e.g. On food, housing and leisure activities.
172
What is the unit of production?
Where family members work together as economic producers, said to be more common in ore-industrial society; e.g. An extended family that works together on a farm.
173
What is urbanisation?
The process of change from a rural society where the majority of the population lives in the countryside to an urban society where most people live in towns and cities. It often occurs along with industrialisation.
174
What is validity?
The capacity of a research method to measure what it sets out to measure; a true or genuine picture of what something is really like. A valid method is thus one that gives a truthful picture. Methods such as participant observation that produce qualitative data are usually seen as high in validity.
175
What is the value consensus?
An agreement amongst society's members about what values are important; a shared culture. According to Functionalists, it integrates individuals into society by giving them a sense of solidarity or 'fellow feeling' with others and enables them to agree on goals and cooperate harmoniously.
176
What are values?
Ideas or beliefs about general principles or goals. They tell society's members what is good or important in life and what to aim for, and they underlie more detailed norms of conduct. Functionalists see shared values as vital in holding society together.
177
What are variables?
Any factor that can change or vary; such as age, gender, occupation or income. Sociologists seek to discover correlations between variables; e.g. Between social class and educational achievement. Laboratory experiments are occasionally used to control variables and measure their effect.
178
What is meant by the term vocational?
Connected to a career. Vocational education and training transmit knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to pursue particular careers, e.g. Courses in IT or hairdressing.
179
What is the welfare state?
Where the government or state takes responsibility for people's well being, especially their basic minimum needs. In Britain, today's welfare state was created largely in the late 1949s. It includes various benefits to provide a minimum income, as well as the NHS, state education and council housing.
