Key Terms, Chapters #8-15 Flashcards
(135 cards)
1
Q
Part of working memory. A speech-and sound-related system for holding and rehearsing (refreshing) words and sounds in short-term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds.
A
Phonological loop -
2
Q
Part of working memory. A holding system for visual and spatial information
A
Visuospatial sketchpad -
3
Q
The process that brings together and integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory under the supervision of the central executive.
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Episodic buffer -
4
Q
The volume of resources necessary to complete a task.
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Cognitive load -
5
Q
The resources required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task.
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Extraneous cognitive load -
6
Q
Deep processing of information related to the task, including the application of prior knowledge to a new task or problem.
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Germane cognitive load -
7
Q
Theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed.
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Levels of processing theory -
8
Q
Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units.
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Chunking -
9
Q
Verbal information; facts; “knowing that” something is the case.
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Declarative knowledge -
10
Q
Knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task; “knowing how.”
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Procedural knowledge -
11
Q
Knowing how to manage your learning, or knowing how and when to use your declarative and procedural knowledge.
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Self-regulatory knowledge -
12
Q
Knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but that influences our behaviour or thought without our awareness.
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Implicit memory -
13
Q
Basic structures for organizing information; concepts.
A
Schemas - (singular, schema)
14
Q
Schema or expected plan for the sequence of steps in a common event such as buying groceries or ordering pizza.
A
Script -
15
Q
Activating a concept in memory or the spread of activation from one concept to another.
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Priming -
16
Q
Adding and extending meaning by connecting new information to existing knowledge.
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Elaboration -
17
Q
Techniques for remembering; the art of memory.
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Mnemonics distributed practice -
18
Q
Practice for a single extended period.
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Massed practice -
19
Q
Knowledge about our own thinking processes.
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Metacognition -
20
Q
A strategy to guide reading and inquiry: Before—What do I already know? What do I want to know? After—What have I learned?
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KWL -
21
Q
A special kind of procedural knowledge—knowing how to approach learning tasks.
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Learning strategies -
22
Q
Failing to activate a learning strategy—a production—when it is appropriate
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Production deficiencies -
23
Q
Recognizing a problem as a “disguised” version of an old problem for which one already has a solution.
A
Schema-driven problem solving -
24
Q
Step-by-step procedure for solving a problem; prescription for solutions.
A
Algorithm -
25
General strategy used in attempting to solve problems.
Heuristic -
26
Heuristic in which a goal is divided into subgoals.
Means-ends analysis -
27
Heuristic in which one starts with the goal and moves backward to solve the problem.
Working backward strategy -
28
Heuristic in which one limits the search for solutions to situations that are similar to the one at hand.
Analogical thinking -
29
Putting your problem-solving plan and its logic into words.
Verbalization -
30
Inability to use objects or tools in a new way.
Functional fixedness -
31
Rigidity; the tendency to respond in the most familiar way.
Response set -
32
judging the likelihood of an event based on how well the events match your prototypes—what you think is representative of the category.
Representativeness heuristic
33
Judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available in your memory, assuming those easily remembered events are common.
Availability heuristic -
34
the tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence.
Belief perseverance -
35
Seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, while disconfirming evidence.
Confirmation bias -
36
The process of debating a claim with someone else.
Argumentation -
37
skills are specific to a particular subject.
Critical thinking -
38
Influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive (not reproductive) uses of cognitive tools and motivations.
transfer -
39
An interdisciplinary science of learning, based on research in psychology, education, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning.
Learning sciences -
40
View that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information.
Constructivism -
41
A focus on the individual and psychological sources of knowing, as in Piaget’s theory.
First wave constructivism -
42
Knowledge is assumed to be the individual’s construction; it cannot be judged right or wrong.
Radical constructivism -
43
A focus on the social and cultural sources of knowing, as in Vygotsky’s theory.
second wave constructivism -
44
How public knowledge in disciplines such as science, math, economics, or history is constructed.
Constructionism -
45
Social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true.
Community of practice -
46
The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings.
Situated learning -
47
Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives.
Social negotiation -
48
Considering problems using various analogies, examples, and metaphors.
Multiple representations of content -
49
Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time.
Spiral curriculum -
50
Approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions.
Inquiry learning -
51
Methods that provide students with realistic problems that don’t necessarily have “right” answers.
Problem based learning -
52
A relationship in which a less experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert.
Cognitive apprenticeship -
53
Designed to help students understand and think deeply about what they read.
Reciprocal teaching -
54
Situations in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation, and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning is supported by other individuals.
Cooperative learning -
55
Students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about lesson material.
Reciprocal questioning -
56
A learning process in which each student is part of a group and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become “expert” on their piece and then teach it to the others in their group.
Jigsaw classroom -
57
Students work in pairs within their four-person cooperative groups to research a particular controversy.
Structured controversy -
58
Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others.
Social Learning Theory
59
Theory that adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory.
Social Cognitive Theory -
60
An explanation of behaviour that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual and the environment on each other.
Triarchic reciprocal causality -
61
Increasing the chances that we will repeat a behaviour by observing another person being reinforced for that behaviour.
vicarious reinforcement -
62
Controlling (selecting and administering) your own reinforcers.
Self-reinforcement -
63
A person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task.
Self-efficacy -
64
The capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation, and emotions to reach your goals.
Human agency -
65
Our own direct experiences—the most powerful source of efficacy information.
mastery experiences -
66
Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, excited, or tense.
Arousal -
67
Accomplishments that are modeled by someone else.
vicarious experiences -
68
Changes in behaviour, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person—a model.
Modeling -
69
A “pep talk” or specific performance feedback—one source of self-efficacy.
Social persuasion -
70
Process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviours, and emotions in order to reach goals.
self-regulation -
71
Willpower; self-discipline; work styles that protect opportunities to reach goals by applying self-regulated learning.
Volition -
72
A transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate self-regulated learning and skills through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from teachers, parents, or peers.
Co-regulation -
73
Students working together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance.
shared-regulation -
74
A view of learning as skills and will be applied to analyzing learning tasks, setting goals and planning how to do the task, applying skills, and especially making adjustments about how learning is carried out.
Self-regulated learning -
75
Talking oneself through the steps of a task.
Self-instruction -
76
Motivation associated with activities that are their own reward.
Intrinsic motivation -
77
Motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments.
Extrinsic Motivation -
78
The location—internal or external—of the cause of behaviour.
Locus of Causality -
79
Approach to motivation that emphasizes personal freedom, choice, self-determination, and striving for personal growth.
Humanistic interpretation -
80
Explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals’ expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal.
Expectancy x Value theories -
81
Perspectives that emphasize participation, identities, and interpersonal relations within communities of practice.
Sociocultural views of motivation -
82
Genuine involvement in the work of the group, even if your abilities are undeveloped and contributions are small.
Legitimate peripheral Participation -
83
The desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions.
Need for autonomy -
84
Suggests that events affect motivation through the individual’s perception of the events as controlling behaviour or providing information.
Cognitive evaluation theory -
85
Patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school.
Goal orientations -
86
A personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers.
Mastery goal -
87
A personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others.
Performance goal -
88
A wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group.
social goals -
89
Beliefs about the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned.
Epistemological beliefs -
90
Descriptions of how individuals’ explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behaviour.
Attribution theories -
91
Students who focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as improvable.
Mastery-oriented students -
92
Students who avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance.
Failure-avoiding students -
93
Students who believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it.
Failure-accepting students -
94
Tasks that have some connection to real-life problems the students will face outside the classroom.
Authentic task -
95
The way students relate to others who are also working toward a particular goal.
Goal structure -
96
Teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences.
Pedagogical content knowledge -
97
As a group, teachers develop, test, improve, and retest lessons until they are satisfied with the final version
Lesson study -
98
Clear statements of what students are intended to learn through instruction.
Instructional objectives -
99
Classification system.
Taxonomy -
100
In Bloom’s taxonomy, memory and reasoning objectives.
Cognitive Domain -
101
Objectives focusing on attitudes and feelings.
Affective domain -
102
Realm of physical ability and coordination objectives.
Psychomotor domain -
103
Systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts, and information.
Direct Instruction or explicit teaching -
104
Statement of inclusive concepts to introduce and sum up material that follows.
Advance organizer -
105
Learning strategy in which two students take turns summarizing material and criticizing the summaries.
Scripted cooperation -
106
Independent classroom work.
Seatwork -
107
Questions that have a single correct answer.
convergent questions -
108
Questions that have no single correct answer.
Divergent questions -
109
Teaching that takes into account students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs.
Differentiated instruction -
110
System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two or three groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student differences.
Within-class ability grouping -
111
Grouping and regrouping students based on learning needs.
flexible grouping -
112
Provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes these supports as students become able to handle more on their own
Adaptive teaching -
113
Exceptional progress by a student as a result of high teacher expectations for that student; named for the mythological king Pygmalion, who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life.
Pygmalion effect -
114
A groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected.
Self-fulfilling prophecy -
115
Student performance maintained at a certain level because teachers do not recognize improvements.
Sustaining expectation effect -
116
Tests given under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures.
Standardized tests -
117
An evaluation expressed in quantitative (number) terms.
Measurement -
118
Procedures used to obtain information about student performance.
Assessment -
119
Ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis.
Formative assessment -
120
Testing that follows instruction and assesses achievement.
Summative assessment -
121
Testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others.
Norm-referenced testing -
122
Testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard.
Criterion-referenced testing -
123
Consistency of test results.
Reliability -
124
Range of scores within which an individual’s particular score is likely to fall.
Confidence interval -
125
Degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
Validity -
126
Qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students’ gender, SES, race, ethnicity, etc.
Assessment bias -
127
The question part of a multiple-choice item.
Stem -
128
Wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple-choice item.
Distractors -
129
Assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations
Authentic assessments -
130
Any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product in order to demonstrate learning.
Performance assessments -
131
A collection of the student’s work in an area, showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement.
Portfolio -
132
Rules that are used to determine the quality of a student’s performance.
scoring rubrics -
133
Measure of how widely scores vary from the mean.
Standard deviation -
134
Scores based on the standard deviation.
Standard scores -
135
Standardized tests whose results have powerful influences when used by school administrators, other officials, or employers to make decisions.
High-stakes testing -
