Khan Academy 300 Page Document Terms and Concepts COPY COPY Flashcards

Question

The ________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the sensory system that provides the leading contribution to the sense of balance and spatial orientation for the purpose of coordinating movement and balance.

Answer 1

The **_vestibular system_** is the sensory system that provides the leading contribution to the sense of balance and spatial orientation for the purpose of coordinating movement and balance.

Answer 2

The vestibular system comes from both **_inner ears_** and **_limbs_**

Answer 3

The focus of the *vestibular system* is primarily on the inner ear, in particular, the **_semicircular canals_** (posterior, lateral, and anterior; each orthogonal to each other) of the inner ear.

Answer 4

Our semicircular canals are filled with **_endolymph_**, and when we rotate, the fluid shifts in the semicircular canals–allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in, and because we can detect how quickly the endolymph is moving we can determine the strength of rotation.

Answer 5

The *otolithic organs* are the **_utricle_** and **_saccule_**. The otolithic organs (**_utricle_** and **_saccule_**) help us to detect linear acceleration and head positioning. In these are CaCO₃ (Calcium carbonate) crystals attached to hair cells in a viscous gel. If we go from lying down to standing up, they move and pull on hair cells, which triggers an action potential. These would not work very well w/o gravity! Buoyancy can have effects as well, particularly without visual cues on which way is up/down. * The **_utricle_** and **_saccule_** (Otolithic organs) also contribute to dizziness and vertigo (when you or objects around you are moving when they are not) * Endolymph doesn't stop spinning the same time as we do, so it continues moving and indicates to the brain we're still moving when we've stopped –results in feeling of dizziness

Answer 6

**_Signal Detection Theory_** is a means to measure the ability to differentiate between information-bearing patterns (called *stimulus* in living organisms) and random patterns that distract from the information (called *noise*, consisting of background stimuli and random activity of the detection machine and of the nervous system of the operator) At what point are we able to detect a * Origins in sonar–is signal a small fish vs. large whale. * Its role in psychology–Imagine being given a list. Then a second list. Now experimenter asks, which words on the second list were on the first. Person has to have uncertainty as they are not sure whether a certain word is exact or similar than the one in the first list. (Which words on the second list were present on the first list). * Real world example–traffic lights. It’s foggy day & you have to decide when tostart driving. How strong does a signal have to be for you to drive? Signal ispresent or absent (red).

Answer 7

The options in signal detection theory are **_hit_**, **_miss_**, **_false alarm_**, and **_correct rejection_**. * **_Hit_** - the subject responded affirmative when the signal was present * **_False Alarm_** - the subject perceived a signal when there was none present * **_Correct Rejection_** - a correct negative answer for no signal * **_Miss_** - a negative response to a present signal

Answer 8

For any signal, you have a **_noise distriution_** (background) and you alsogeta second graph of the **_signal distribution_**. * The **_difference between_** the middle signal and noise distribution is **_d'_**. If the signal graph is shifted to the right, you get a larger and more detectible signal. * The X-Axis represents intensity * The strategy C can be expressed via choice of threshold –what threshold individual deems as necessary for them to say Yes vs. No. Ex. B, D, C, beta, just diff variables * If we were to use the strategy B, let’s say choose this threshold –\>2. So anything \> 2 will say Yes, anything \<2, say No. So probability of hit is shaded yellow, and false alarm is purple. * D strategy: D = (d’-B), so let’s say d’ in this example is 1, so 2-1=-1. So if we use D strategy, anything above -1 = Yes; anything below -1 = No * C strategy is an ideal observer. Minimizes miss and false alarm. C = B –d’/2. So in our example, it’s 2-½ = 1.5. So anything above a 1.5 is YES, anything below 1.5 is NO * When C = 0, participant is ideal observer. If \<1 àliberal. If \>1 àconservative * Beta strategy: set value of threshold to the ratio of height of signal distribution to height of noise distribution, i.e. lnbeta = d’ x C = 1 x 1.5 = 1.5. So e^1.5 = beta = 4.48

Answer 9

**_Bottom Up Processing_**: Begins with stimulus. Stimulus influences what we percieve (our perception). AKA perception **_directs_** cognition * No preconceived cognitive contructs of the stimulus (never seen it before) * Data driven. And the stimulus directs cognitive awareness o what you're looking at (object) * Inductive reasoning. Always correct.

Answer 10

**_Top-down Processing_**: uses background knowledge to influence perception. Ex. Where's Waldo * Theory driven * Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic, logical deduction is the process of reasoningfrom one or more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion. * ex. creating a cube when it is not there! Not always correct

Answer 11

The principles of grouping (or **_Gestalt Principles_** or **_Gestalt Laws of grouping_**) are a set of principles in psychology, first proposed by Gestalt psychologists to account for the observation that humans naturally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects, a principle known as Prägnanz. Gestalt psychologists argued that these principles exist because the mind has an innate disposition to perceive patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules. * What are the five main **_Gestalt Principles_**: *similarity* *pragnanz*, *proximity*, *continuity*, and *closure*.

Answer 12

This is a *Gestalt Principle*. **_Similarity_**: items similar to one another are grouped by the brain. Ex: The brain automatically organizes these squares and circles into columns, and not in rows.

Answer 13

**_Pragnanz_**

Answer 14

**_Proximity_**

Answer 15

**_Continuity_**

Answer 16

**_Closure_**

Answer 17

**_Symmetry_**

Answer 18

The **_Law of Common Fate_**: For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we percieve the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units

Answer 19

The **_law of past experience_** implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U

Answer 20

**_Contextual Effects_**:the context in which stimuli are presented and the processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli (and also that the context can establish the way in which stimuli are organized).

Answer 21

**_Conjunctiva_**

Answer 22

**_Cornea_**

Answer 23

Which part of the human eye is the space filled with **_Aqueous Homour_**, which provides pressure to maintain the shape of the eyeball and allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of the cornea/iris? Answer: **_Anterior Chamber_**

Answer 24

**_Pupil_**

Answer 25

**_Iris_**

Answer 26

**_Lens_**

Answer 27

**_Suspensory_** **_Ligaments_**: attached to a **_cillary_** **_muscle_**. These two things together form the **_cillary_** **_body_**. The cillary epithelieum secretes aqueus humor.

Answer 28

**_Posterior Chamber_**

Answer 29

**_Vitreous Chamber_** What and where in the area of the eye **_vitreous humour_** found, a jelly like substance to provide pressure to the eyeball and gives nutrients to inside of the eyeball?

Answer 30

**_Retina_**

Answer 31

**_Macula_**

Answer 32

**_Fovea_**

Answer 33

**_Cones_** These are cone-shaped

Answer 34

**_Rods_**

Answer 35

**_Choroid_** **_Choroid_**

Answer 36

**_Sclera_**

Answer 37

**_Transmission_** is the electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron.

Answer 38

**_Perception_**

Answer 39

**_Processing_** is the neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception.

Answer 40

**_Transduction_**

Answer 41

**_Sensation_** requires a physical stimulus to be converted into a neural impulse.

Answer 42

In the case of the eye, light is being converted to a **_neural impulse_** by a **_photoreceptor_**.

Answer 43

**_Light_** is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. **_Visible light_** rangesfrom Violet (400 nm) to Red (700 nm). The highest to lowest wavelength is ROYGBIV. The Sun is the most common sources of light. The electromagnetic spectrum contains everything fromgamma ras (low wavelength) to AM/FMwaves (long wavelength). Visible light is in the middle of the EM spectrum.

Answer 44

Light enters the *pupil* and goes to the *retina,* which contains *rods* and *cones*.

Answer 45

There are 120 million rods. Rods are good during night vision. Light comes in, goes through pupil, and hits rod. Normally your rod is turned **_on_**, but when light hits, it causes the rod to turn **_off_**. * When the rod is *off*, it turns **_on_** a bipolar cell, which turns **_on_** a retinal ganglion cell, which goes into the optic never and enters brain.

Answer 46

There are 6-7 million cones in the human eye. Cones are good at detecting in high detail. Cones are what help us find Waldo's bitch ass in a search book. There are three types of cones: *red*, *green*, and *blue*. Almost all the cones are centered in the fovea, which is the center of the macula.

Answer 47

The **_Phototransduction_** **_Cascade_** is what happens when light hits a rod and/or cone. * When light hits rods, the rods turn *off*. This then causes the bipolar cells to turn *on*. The bipolar cell causes the retinal ganglion cells to then turn *on*. This goes to the optic nerve and then goes to the brain. * The phototransduction cascade is the process of the rod turning from ON to OFF.

Answer 48

The **_Phototransduction_** **_Cascade_** makes the brain recognize that there is light entering the eyeball. The process of making the light leads to a neural impulse by turning off a rod. The neral impulse can turn on other cells and eventually be processed by the brain.

Answer 49

The human retina is primarily made of rods and cones.

Answer 50

* Inside the rod are many **_optic disks_** stacked on top of one another * Many protiens are on the *optic disk*. One of those proteins is **_rhodopsin_** (on a cone the same protein is called **_photopsin_**), a multimeric protein with 7 dics, which contains a small molecule called retinal **_(11-cis retinal_**). When there is light, the light comes through the pupil and hits the *retinal* (*11-cis rretinal*), then it rods, some of the light hits *rhodopsin* (which contains *retinal*) and causes the *retinal* to change conformation from bent to straight conformation **_(11-trans retinal)_** * When *retinal* changes shape, *rhodopsin* changes shape (closely linked molecules). This begins the cascade. * Next, there's a molecule called **_transducin_** made of three different parts – **_alpha_**, **_beta_**, **_gamma_** that is attached to the rhodopsin typically. * When the rhodopsin changes shape, transducin breaks from rhodopsin, and the **_alpha_** subunit binds to another disk protein called **_Phospodiesterase (PDE)_** * PDE takes **_cGMP_** and converts it to regular _GMP_. [So when light hits, lower concentration of *cGMP* and increases the concentraion of GMP]. * Lots of **_Na+ channels_** on the rods allow _Na_⁺ ions to come in, * **_cGMP bound to Na+ channel, keeps the channel open_** and hence "on", as cGMP concentration decreases (due to the PDE which converts it into GMP), Na+ channel closes and cell turns "OFF" * When Na+ channels become unbound of cGMP, less Na+ enters the cell, then **_cell hyperpolarization_** and turn "OFF" * Next, bipolar cells (two variants: **_ON CENTER**_ and _**OFF CENTER_**). * When light hits the rod, the rod turns **_off_**, leading to _on center_ bipolar cells to activate and _off center_ bipolar cells to inactivate. * When on center bipolar cells turn on, this activates on center retinal ganglion cells, which send signals to the **_optic nerve_** to the brain. * When dark, Rod turned on, leading to **_on center_** bipolar cells to be inactive and o**_ff center bipolar_** cells to be active * When off center bipolar cells are turned on, this activates off center retinal ganglion cells, which sends signals to the **_optic nerve_** to the brain.

Answer 51

*Photopic Vision* occurs at levels of **_high light_** levels.

Answer 52

*Mesopic Vision* occurs at **_dawn or dusk_** and involves both rods and cones.

Answer 53

*Scotopic Vision* occurs at levels of **_very low_** light.

Answer 54

* A photoreceptor is a **_specialized_** **_nerve_** that can take light and conver and convert it to a neural impulse * Inside rods are **_optic_** **_discs_**, which are large membrane bound structures – thousands of them. In the membrane of each optic disc are proteins that fire action potentials to the brain * Cones are also specialized nerves with the same internal structure as the rod. * Rods contain **_rhodopsin_** (a protein on the membrane of optic discs, which are inside rods); whereas, cones have a similar protein called **_photopsin_**. * Inside **_rhodopsin_** is **_cis retinal_** that gets turned into **_trans retinal_** once light hits it. * If light hits a **_rhodopsin_**, it will trigger the phototransduction cascade. Same process for a cone

Answer 55

Phototransduction Cascade * Retina is made off a bunch of dif cells –rods and cones. * As soon as light is presented to him, he takes light and converts it to neural impulse.Normally turned on, but when light hits it’s turned off. * PTC is set of steps that turn it off. * oInside rod are a lot of disks stacked on top of one another. * A lot of proteins in the disks. One is rhodopsin, a multimeric protein with 7 discs, which contains a small molecule called retinal(11-cis retinal). When light hits, it can hit the retinal, and causes it to change conformation from bent to straight. * When retinal changes shape, rhodopsin changes shape. * That begins this cascade of events –there’s a molecule in green called transducin made of 3 dif parts –alpha, beta, gamma Transducin breaks from rhodopsin, and alpha part comes to disk and binds to phosphodiesterase(PDE). * So bipolar cells turn on. This activates retinal ganglion cellwhich sends signal to optic nerve to brain. * As less Na+ enters the cell,rodshyperpolarize and turn off. Glutamate is no longer released, and no longer inhibits ON bipolar cells (it’s excitatory to OFF bipolar cells).  * PDE takes cGMP and converts itto regular GMP. Na+ channels allow Na+ ions to come in, but for this channel to open, need cGMP bound. AscGMP decreases, Na channels closes.

Answer 56

* There are more rods than cones (each eye has 120M rods vs. 6M cones or 20x more rods than cones.) It is more important to see light than detail initially! * Cones are concentrated in the fovea. * Rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones. Rods are better at detecting light – telling us whether light is present. Rods are black and white vision. * Cones detect **color** primarily but cones also detect some light. There are three types of cones: *Red*, *Green*, and *Blue* * 60% of your cones can detect red, 30% candetect green, and 10% can detect blue. * Rods have slow recovery time vs. cones have fast recovery time. Takes a while to adjust to the dark because rods need to be reactivated. Cones adapt to change quickly (fire more frequently)

Answer 57

You *blind spot* is where your optic nerve connects to the retina. It is your *blind spot* because there are no rods or cones in that part of the eye.

Answer 58

* Rods are mostly found in the periphery of the retina. * Cones are found primarily in the fovea, and a few cones are dispersed through the rest of the eye. * At the fovea (dimple in the retina) - there are no axons in the way of light, so you get higher resolution. At the periphery of the retina, light has to get through bundles of axons and some light energy is lost. Therefore, at the fovea, light hits cones directly because there are not axons in the way. At the periphery, less light is able to reach the rods due to axons being in the way of the light trying to reach the rods.

Answer 59

Visual Field Processing is how our brain makes sense of what we are looking at. The right side of our body is controlled by the left side of the brain, and the left side of the body is controlled by the right side of the brain.

Answer 60

All right visual field goes goes to the **_left_** side of the brain; all left visual field goes to the **_right_** side of the brain.

Answer 61

A ray of light that enters your left eye on the nasal side of your head will get interpretted by the **_right_** side of your brain.

Answer 62

**_Optic nerves_** from each eye networks the electrical signal to the brain and converge from each eye at the **_optic chiasm_** and then break off and dig deeper into the brain * All light signals from the nasal passage cross the other side. Therefore, only the nasal nerves pass the optic chiasm. * On the other hand, all axons leading from the temporal side DO NOT CROSS the optic chiasm. * What it effectively does, is the right visual field goes to the left brain and the left visual field goes to the right side of the brain

Answer 63

**_Feature Detection_**: when looking at an object, you need to break it down into its component features to make sense of what you are looking at. There are three things to consider when looking at any object: **_color_**, **_form_**, and **_motion_**.

Answer 64

There are three parts to feature detection: **_color_**, **_form_**, and **_motion_** * **_Color_**: * Uses the cones of the eye * **_Trichromatic Theory_** of color vision, three types of cones * **_Red (60%)_**, **_Green (30%)_**, and **_Blue (10%)_** * Remember red objects reflect red, green objects reflect green, and blue objects reflect blue * If objects reflects red and travels to a red detecting cone, it can then fire an action potential and eventuallty cause the brain to say "OH RED!!". *

Answer 65

There are three parts to feature detection: **_Color_**, **_Form_**, and **_Motion_**. * **_Form_**: We need to figure our boundaries of the object and shape of the object. * **_Parvocellular pathway_**: good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape – high levels of details), and color. But poor temporal (can't detect motion–only stationary) * **_Cones_** are responsible for form! * Acronym: **_Pink Pyramid_** (a type of form/shape) - **_Parvocellular pathway_**

Answer 66

There are three parts to feature detection: **_Color_**, **_Form_**, and **_Motion_**. * **_Motion_**: * **_Magnocellular pathway_**: has high temporal resolution (think time, motion) resolution [encodes motion]. However, the magnocellular pathway has poor spatial resolution; no color). Rods responsible. * Acronym: Motion = **_Magnocellular pathway_**

Answer 67

There are three parts to feature detection: **_Color_**, **_Form_**, and **_Motion_**. Parallel Processing: detect/focus all information(**_Color_**, **_Form_**, and **_Motion_**) at the same time.

Answer 68

**_Audition_** is our sense of sound.

Answer 69

For us to hear sound, we need two things (for audition to occur): 1. **_pressurized sound wave_** (a stimuli) 2. **_hair cell_** (a receptor, located in the cochlea) What is a pressurized sound wave? Ex. In between your hands are a bunch of air molecules, and whenhands move towards each other, there is less space so the molecules compress and there is a higher pressure. The air molecules are becoming pressurized

Answer 70

Air molecules are pressurized and try to escape, creating areas of high and low pressure – known as **_sound waves_**. * Sound waves can be far apart or close together * **_Wavelength_**: how close peaks are * Smaller wavelength = greater frequency * Higher wavelength (smaller frequency)= travel farther = penetrate deeper into the cochlea. * Different noises have different sounds * You can listen to different frequencies at same time –if you add diff frequency waves together, get weird frequency. Ear has to break this up. Able to do that because sound waves travel different lengths along cochlea.

Answer 71

Sound (auditory waves) path: 1. First hit outer part of ear, known as the **_pinna_**. 2. Then the sound gets funneled from the **_pinna_** to the **_auditory canal_** (also known as the **_external auditory meatus_**). 3. Then from the auditory canal, they hit the **_tympanic membrane_** (also called the **_eardrum_**). 4. As pressurized wave hits the eardrum, it vibrates back and forth, causing 3 bones to vibrate in this order: i. **_Malleus_** (**_hammer_**) ii. **_incus_** (**_anvil_**) 5. iii. **_stapes_** (**_stirrup_**) \*[acronym: **MIS**] \*Three smallest bones in the body \*These bones combined are also referred to as the **_ossicles_**. 6. The **_stapes_** is attached to the **_oval window_** (aka **_elliptical window_**). The oval window then vibratesback and forth. 7. As it gets vibrated, it pushes fluid and causes it to go in/around the **_cochlea_** (a round structure lined with hair cells). 8. At the tip of the cochlea (inner most part of the circle), where can the fluid go? It can only go back, but goes back to the **_round window_** (**_circular window_**) and pushes it out. 9. The reason it doesn't go back to the oval window, is because in the middle of the cochlea is a membrane –**_Organ of Corti_** (includes the **basilar membrane** and the **tectorial membrane**). 10. As **_hair cells_** (**_cillia_**) move back and forth in the cochlea – electrical impulse is transported by **auditory nerve** to the brain. 11. The above process of fluid going around the cochlea keeps occurring till the energy of the sound wave dissipates and stops moving. Occurs more = more hair cells vibrate

Answer 72

**_Place theory_** is a theory of hearing which states that our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane. By this theory, the pitchof a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of the primary auditory neurons. Place theory posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea’s basilar membrane.

Answer 73

* **_External/Outer ear_**: from pinna to tympanic membrane * **_Middle ear_**: from malleus to stapes (three ossicles) * **_Inner ear_**: Cochlea and semicircular canals (Start of page 29 of the Khan Academy P/S Document)

Answer 74

**_Stapes_** – moving back and forth at same frequency as stimulus. It pushes the elliptical window back and forth * There's fluid inside the cochlea which gets pushed around the cochlea, and comes back around. The **_Organ of Corti_** splits the cochlea into two.

Answer 75

For a cross section of the Organ of Corti * **_Upper and lower membrane_**, and little hair cells. As fluid flows from around the organ, it causes the hair cells to move back and forth. * The **_hair bundle_** is made of little filaments. Each filament is called a **_kinocillium_**. * The tip of each **_kinocillium_** is connected by a **_tip link_** * The **_tip link_** is attached to the gate of the **_K+ Channel_**, so when the **_kinocillium_** gets pushed back and forth, they stretch and it allows K+ to flow inside the cell. * Ca2+ cells get activated when K+ is inside, so Ca2+ get activated, and causes an action potential in a **_spiral ganglion cell_** which then activates the auditory nerve.

Answer 76

* Our brain relies on the **_cochlea_** to differentiate between two different sounds. * Base drums when hit give off a low frequency sound, and bees when flying give off a high frequency sound. * Humans can hear from **_20 Hz to 20000 Hz_** frequencies.

Answer 77

Brain also uses **_basilar tuning_** – there are varying hair cells in the cochlea. Hair cells at the base of the cochlea are activated by high frequency sounds, and the hair cells at the apex are activated by low frequency sounds. * As sounds of different frequencies reach the ear, they will stimulate different parts of the basilar membrane. * **_apex cochlea_**= 25 Hz (low frequency, HIGH wavelength) * **_Base cochlea_**= 1600 Hz (high frequency, LOW wavelength) * Only certain hair cells are activated and send AP to the brain – **_primary auditory cortex_** recieves all info from the cochlea. * The **_primary auditory cortex_** is also sensitive to various frequencies in different locations * Basilar tuning allows the brain to distinguish between different frequencies – **_tonotopical mapping_**.

Answer 78

**_Cochlear implants_** are an implantable biomedical devices that are inserted into a person in an attempt to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with **_sensory narrow hearing loss_** – aka '**_nerve defness_**' * People who have a problem with conduction of sound waves from the cochlea to the brain get **_cochlear implants_**. * The device has a **_reciever_** that goes to a **_stimulator_** which reaches the cochlea. The receiver recieves information from a **_transmitter_**. The transmitter gets electrical information from the **_speech processor**_. The _**speech processor_** gets information from a microphone. * Entire process of cochlear implant: sound –\> *microphone* –\> *speech processor* –\>*transmitter* (outside the skull) sends information to the *reciever* (inside the skull). Then it sends information to the *stimulator*, into the cochlea, and the cochlea converts the electrical impulse into a neural impulse that goes to the brain. The cochlear implant restores hearing to some degree.

Answer 79

**_Sensory adaptation_** is change over time of a receptor to a constant stimulus – **_down regulation_** of a sensory receptor in the body. **_sensory adaptation_** = **_down regulation_** (IMPORTANT TO KNOW!) * Example: as you push down with your hand, receptors experience constant pressure. However, after a few seconds, the receptors no longer fire. * Sensory adaptation/down regulation is important becuae if cells are overexcited, they can die. For eaxmple, if there is too much of a pain signal in a pain receptor from capsaicin, the recepter or cell can die. **_Amplification_** is **_up regulation_**, and **_amplification_** is the opposite of sensory adaptation. **_Up regulation_** is the same as **_amplification_**. * An example of **_amplification_** or **_up regulation_** is when light hits a photoreceptor in the eye and causes the cell to fire. When the cell fires an action action potential, the AP can be connected to two cells, which also fires an action potential and so on. By the time it the action potential gets to the brain, the signal is amplified.

Answer 80

* **_Somatosensory Homunculus_**: A map of your body in your brain. Information all comes from the "**_sensory strip_**". The **_Somatosensory Homunculus_** is a topological map of the entire body in the cortex. Different areas of the body have signals that go to different parts on this strip. * This part of the cortex/parietal lobe is called the **_sensory cortex_** – contains the homunculus. * Sensory information from all over the body ends up in the somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe. * If there was a brain tumor, to figure out what part it’s in neurosurgeons can touch dif parts ofcortex and stimulatethem. If surgeon touches part of cortex patients can say they feel it. Do it to make sure they aren’t removing parts in sensation * This creates a topological map of the body in the cortex

Answer 81

Your sense of balance and postion is called **_propioception_**. * Tiny little sensors located in our muscles that goes up to spinal cord and to the brain. It’s sensitive to stretching. * Sensors contract with muscles–so we’re able to tell how contracted or relaxed every muscle in our body is **_Kinaesthesia_** is talking about movement of the body. **_Proprioception_** was cognitive awareness ofbody in space. Kinaesthesiais morebehavioural. * **_Kinaesthesia_** does not include a sense of balance, while **_propioception_** includes a sense of balance. **_Proprioception_** is concerned with your body in space; where as, **_kinesthesia_** is how your body will move or is moving.

Answer 82

**_Nociception_**

Answer 83

**_Thermoception_**

Answer 84

Thermoception and nociception signals are sent slowly.

Answer 85

In order for us to sense temperature, we rely on the **_TrypV1 receptor_**. * Interestingly, this receptor is also sensitive to **_pain_**. * There are thousands of **_TrypV1_** receptors in membranes of cells. Heat causes a conformational change (change in physical structure) in the protein. * When the cell is poked, thousands of cells are broken up, and releases molecules that bind to **_TrypV1_** receptor. This causes a change in conformation, which activates the cell and send the signal to the brain.

Answer 86

There are **_3 types of nerve fibers_**: fast, medium, and slow. {Acronym to remember: the nerve fibers are fast to slowest alphabetically **_A-B_**, **_A-D_**, **_C_**] * **_A-beta fibers_** - fast speed nerve fiber type. These nerve fibers are thick and covered in myeline (leading to less resistance and high conductance) * **_A-delta fibers_** - medium speed nerve fiber type. These nerve fibers have a small diameter and less myelin. * **_C-Fibers_** - slow speed nerve fiber type. These nerve fibers have a small diameter and are unmyelinated. The unmyelination is what causes a lingering sense of pain.

Answer 87

**_Pain_** also changes the conformation of receptors – **_capsaicin_** binds the **_TrypV1_** receptor in your tongue, and triggers the same response.

Answer 88

Smell is known as **_olfaction_**.

Answer 89

Area in nostril called the **_olfactory epithelium_**. Separating the **_olfactory epithelium_** from the brain is the **_cribriform plate_**. Above the plate is an extension from the brain–**_olfactory bulb_**–a bundle of nerves that sends little projections through cribriform plate into the **_olfactory epithelium_**, which branch off. * At end of each connection are receptors, each sensitive to 1 type of molecule. * Molecule travels into nose, binds one of receptors on nerve endings. Zoom in on olfactory bulb * Imagine there’s olfactory cell sending projection to olfactory bulb. There are thousandsof types of epithelial cells, each with dif receptor. Say this one is sensitive to benzene rings. * When it binds to receptor, triggers events that cause cell to fire. AP will end up in **_olfactory bulb_**. All cells sensitive to benzene will fire to one olfactory bulb–called a **_glomerulus_**. * They then synapse on another cell known as a **_mitral/tufted cell_** that projects to the brain. The molecule binds to the GPCR receptor, G-protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell. Binds to ion channel, which opens and triggers an AP

Answer 90

Dogs pee on a fire hydrant becuase **_pheromones_** are in a dog's urine, and the dog wants to be sensed by other animals' nose. * The cells that sense **_pheromones_** are specialized olfactory cells. * **_Pheromones_** cause some sort of response in the animal smelling them. * A **_pheromone_** is a chemical signal released by 1 member of the species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response. * **_Pheromones_** are really inmportant in animals, particularly insects. **_Pheromones_** are linked to mating, fighting, and communication especially among insects. Specialized part of olfactory epithelium in animals–the accessory olfactory epithelium. It sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb. * Within the accessory olfactory epithelium, you have the vomeronasal system. * In vomeronasal system, there are basal cells and apical cells. They have receptors at tips. * Triangle will come in and activate receptor on basal cell here. Basal cell sends axon through accessory olfactory bulb to glomerulus, which eventually goes to the amygdala. * Amygdala is involved with emotion, aggression, mating etc. * Humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. Therefore, pheromones do not have much of an impact on humans. * Humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. Therefore, pheromones do not have much of an impact on humans. * Signal transduction is where signal binds to receptor, which binds to GPCR. Depolarization. Signal goes to brain.oIn humans have vomeronasal organ,but no accessory olfactory bulb. As a result, we rely very little on pheromones

Answer 91

**_Gustation_** is our sense of **_taste_**.

Answer 92

Our five main tastes are **_bitter_**, **_salty_**, **_sweet_**, **_sour_**, and **_unami_** (ability to taste glutamate).

Answer 93

Taste buds are concentrated anteriorly on the tongue. However, taste buds can be **_fungiform_** (anterior on the tongue), **_foliate_** (side on the tongue), and **_circumvallate_** (back of the tongue). Each of these three taste bud types are structurally different. * In each taste bud, there are **_5 receptor cells_** that can detect each individual taste. Each taste can be detected anywhere on the tongue. Each taste bud has cells specialized for each of the 5 tastes. * Most of the taste buds and, therefore, the taste receptors are on the anterior part of the tongue Each taste receptor has an axon, which all remain separate to the brain. They all synapse on different parts of the gustatory cortex. This is known as the **_labelled lines model_**. * Ex. Glucose hits the tongue, activates a sweet cell (because it has sweet sensitive receptors), triggers cascade of events sp cell depolarizes, and travels down the axon to the brain. * Glucose binds the G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR), induces a conformation change, G-protein dissociates, opens ion channels, and causes the cell to depolarize and fire an action potential.

Answer 94

The **_labelled lines model_** is the idea that once a taste receptor is activated, the taste receptor does not interact with the other four taste receptor types. That taste receptor type interacts with on distinct taste area of the cerebral cortex. The yello circle in the picture below represents the brain region associated with taste.

Answer 95

**_Sweet_**, **_unami_**, and **_bitter_** cells have GPCR receptor types on them.

Answer 96

**_Sweet_** and **_salty_** nerve cells rely on ion channels directly for signal transduction. Sour and salty cells rely on ion channels for AP transmission. The sodium ions or sour ion types bind to the receptor directly. For example NaCl binds to a receptor and causes ion channels to open, and + ion outside to flow in. Cell depolarizes and fires an action potential. * What happens if we put salty receptor inside a sweet cell? Receptors in membrane bind to glucose. But let’s insert a salty receptor. Since axon from cell leads to brain, if NaCl comes in, it activates the receptor, + ions go inside, sweet cell depolarizes and fires AP, and brain interprets it as a sweet signal.

Answer 97

**_Consciousness_** is awareness of our self and environment. You can have different levels of consciousness (different levels of awareness) and can be natural or be induced by external factors such as drugs or internal such as mental efforts. The states of **_consciousness_** range from alertness to sleep.

Answer 98

**_Alertness_** – you're awake, aware of who you are, what's going on in the environment, focus your attention, engage in conformation, and code information to your memory. **_Alertness_** is a state of *consciousness*.

Answer 99

**_Daydreaming_** – feel more relaxed, and you are not as focused as you are as when you are *alertness*. **_Daydreaming_** is a state of *conciousness* that can also be self-induced through meditation.

Answer 100

**_Drowsiness_** – just before falling asleep/ after waking up. **_Drowsiness_** is a state of *consciousness* that can also be self-induced in deep meditation.

Answer 101

**_Sleep_** – is a state of consciousness inchich you are not aware of yourself or the worls around you.

Answer 102

**_Electroencephalograms_** (**_EEGs_**) can measure your brainwaves. * The four main types of brainwaves: beta, alpha, delta, and theta. * Each brainwave type oscillates at a different frequency and the different frequency range is associated with different types of consciousness. * **_Beta_** (**_13-30 Hz_**) – associated with awake/concetration state of *concsciousness*. If you are alert for too long, and beta levels get too high, you experience increased stress, anxiety, and restlessness – constant awakened alertness. * **_Alpha_** (**_8-13 Hz_**) – associated with a daydreaming state of *consciousness* Alpha waves are lower in frequency than the beta waves/ Alpha waves disappear in drowsiness but reappear later in deep sleep. * **_Theta_** (**_4-7 Hz_**) – slower/lower frequency than alpha waves. Theta waves occur during the drowsiness state of consciousness or right after you fall asleep or when you are sleeping lightly. * **_Delta_** (**_0.5-3 Hz_**) – Slower/lower frequency than theta waves. Delta waves occur during deep sleep state of consciousness of coma. You might not be aware of shifting from one stage of sleep to another, but your brain knows. You have set of neurons that fire rhythmically) in your CNS , which lead to neural rhythms (also called oscillations and commonly known as brain waves) that can be measured by EEGs.

Answer 103

**_Sleep stages_**: Your brain goes through distinct brain patterns during sleep. The four main stages of sleep occur in **_90 minute_** cycles.

Answer 104

* The first three stages of sleep are categorized by **_non-rapid eye movement sleep_** (**_non-REM_**) – N1, N2, and N3 * N1 (Stage 1): – Dominated by **_theta waves_**. Strange sensations – **_hypnagonic hallucinations_**, hearing or seeing things that aren't there. For example, you may see a flash of light, someone calling your name, a doorbell ringing, etc. Or the **_Tetris Effect_** – if you play tetris right before bed, you might see blocks. During slee pyou may also experience the feeling of falling. This can cause **_hypnic jerks_** - muscle twitches you sometimes get as you fall asleep. **_Theta waves_**! * N2 (Stage 2) – deeper stage of sleep. People in N2 are harder to awaken. We see more **_theta waves_** as well as **_sleep spindles_** and **_k-complexes_**. * **_Sleep spindles_** help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep. **_Sleep spindles_** in some parts of the brain are associated with the ability to sleep through loud noises. * **_K-complexes_** surpress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also help sleep-based memory consolidation. Even though **_K-complexes_** occur naturally, you can also make them occur by touching someone else. * N3 (Stage 3) – slow wave sleep. Characterized by **_delta waves_**. Where walking/talking in sleep happens. * REM (rapid eye movement) stage. Most of your other muscles are paralyzed. Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, so paralysation inhibits actions. REM is the most important sleep stage for **_memory consolidation_**. REM is is good for **_episodic memory_**. REM is a combination of **_alpha_**, **_beta_**, and **_desynchronous waves_** similar to beta waves seen when awake. * REM is sometimes called **_paradoxical sleep_** because the brain is active and awake. However, the body prevents you from moving. * Waking up during REM sleep allows you to remember your dream.

Answer 105

* Sleep cycles through these stages approximately four or five times throughout the night. * A sleep cycle takes 90 minutes to complete. * How long each stage lasts depends on how long you’ve been asleep and your age (babies spend more time in REM sleep). * Sleep begins in stage 1 and progresses into stages 2, and 3. After stage 3 sleep, stage 2 sleep is repeated before entering REM sleep. Once REM sleep is over, the body usually returns to stage 2 sleep.

Answer 106

A **_circadian rhythm_** is a natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours. It can refer to any biological process that displays an endogenous, entrainable oscillation of about 24 hours. These 24-hour *rhythms* are driven by a *circadian* clock, and they have been widely observed in plants, animals, fungi, and cyanobacteria. * Circadian rythms are controlled by melatonin, which is produced in our brain's pineal gland. * Circadian rythms control our body's temperature and sleep cycle, etc * Light can inhibit melatonin production and, therefore, change our circadian rythm. * Older people go to bed early, and younger people tend to be night owls.

Answer 107

Everybody dreams during REM sleep. You can tell someone is dreaming because the person's eyes are moving rapidly under their eyelids and the individual's brainwaves look like they are completely awake. During dreaming, the activity in the **_prefrontal cortex_** during REM sleep is decreased – partly responsible for logic. The decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex is the reason things in our dream can defy logic and don't seem weird.

Answer 108

Sigmund Freud's interpretation of dreams was that our dreams are our unconcious thoughts and desires that need to be interpretted. There is little scientific support for Freud's interpretation.

Answer 109

Evolutionary Psychology states that dreams are a threat simulation to prepare for real world, useful for problem solving, or no purpose and occur as a bunch of random neurochemical processes.

Answer 110

The other possible theories for why we dream are to * maintain brain flexibility * consolodate thoughts to long term memory, and cleaning up thoughts. People who learn + sleep retain more than those who do not sleep. But role of REM is unclear. * preserve and develop neural pathways, Because infants constantly develop new neural networks spend most of their time in REM sleep.

Answer 111

Sigmund Freud's theory of dreams says dreams represent our unconscious feelings/thoughts. Like an iceberg. * What occurs during your dreams is what Freud labels as **_manifest content_**. For example, this could be a monster chasing you. * What is the hidden meaning of your dream is what Freud would label as latent content. For example the meaning behind the monster is that your job is pushing you out * Freud believes dreams help us resolve and identify hidden conflict.

Answer 112

The Activation Synthesis Hypothesis states that the brain get much neural impulses in the brainstem (activation), and this neural impulse can be interpretted by the prefrontal cortex (synthesis). We try to make meaning from thee random impulses, meaning that dreams do NOT have any meaning!

Answer 113

People with **_sleep deprivation_** might be more irritable and have poorer memory. This could be dangerous when it comes to flying airplanes or driving cars. * People with **_sleep deprivation_** are also more susceptible to obesity because the body makes more **_cortisol_** and more **_hunger hormone ghrelin_**. * **_Sleep deprivation_** can also increase your risk for **_depression_**. REM sleep helps the brain process emotional experiences, which can help protect us against depression (link is uncertain). * You can get back on track by paying back "sleep debt".

Answer 114

7-8 hours for adults. Varies with age and individual. Babies need a lot more. * An infant (age 4 months to 11 months) should get at least 12 hours. * A preschooler (age 3 to 5 years old) should get at least 10 hours of sleep a night. * A school age child (age 6 to 13 years old) should get at least 9 hours of sleep a night. * Older adults = at least 7 hrs

Answer 115

**_Isomnia_** is a more serious form of sleep disorder. **_Isomnia_** is a persistent trouble falling asleep or staying asleep. There are various medications for this sleep disorder, but taking those medications can lead to dependence and tolerance. Exercising 5 hours or more or relaxing before bed can help with **_Isomnia_**.

Answer 116

**_Narcolepsy_** is a sleep disorder in which the individual can't help themselves from falling asleep. People with **_narcolepsy_** have various fits of sleepiness and will periodically go into REM sleep for 5 minutes. They can fall asleep at anytime. **_narcolepsy_** effects 1 in 2000 people. * Research shows that this condition is genetic, and **_narcolepsy_** is linked to the abscence of an alertness neurotransmitter.

Answer 117

**_Sleep apnea_** is a sleep disorder that effects 1 in 20 people. People with **_sleep apnea_** are often unaware they have it. People with **_sleep apnea_** stop breathing while sleeping. Your body then realizes that you are not getting enoguh oxygen and wakes up long enough to gasp for air and fall back asleep without being aware this occurred in the night. Waking up and going back to sleep can occur 100 times per night in individuals with **_sleep apnea_**. * People with **_sleep apnea_** do NOT get enough N3 (slow-wave) sleep. * Snoring or fatique in the morning is often an indication of having **_sleep apnea_**.

Answer 118

**_Sleepwalking/sleep talking_** is mostly genetic and occurs during N3 (stage 3;slow wave) and is a harmless condition. It occurs more often in children (partly becuase they have more N3 stage sleep than adults).

Answer 119

Sleeping problems can come from the *brain*, *airways*, *lungs/chest wall*.

Answer 120

* Obstruction to airways causes problems breathing at night * Air going into nose/mouth reaches the lungs. Tissues around neck may block this airflow – snoring/gasping/pauses in breathing. Called an **apnea** (absence of airflow). * Called **obstructive sleep apnea**, very common and gets worse as people get older. * People are tired/sleepy and unrefreshed when they wake up. * 5+ apneas an hour (measured by polysomnography

Answer 121

* In the brain, called **_central sleep apnea_**. Presence of apneas without obstruction. Problem with the control system for ventilation. * **Cheyne-Stokes breathing** (period of oscillations, then flat, etc.) pattern in polysomnography * In lungs or chest wall, hyperventilation can occur (high pCO2, low pO2). Caused by medication/obesity. Chronically elevated pCO2 can lead to right-sided heart failure.

Answer 122

**_Hypnotism_** usually involves getting an individual to relax and focus on breathing, and a person undergoing **_hypnotism_** becomes more suscptible to suggestion in this state – but only if the individual chooses to become more suggestable. There are more **_alpha waves_** in a state of **_hypnosis_**. This means the individual is in an awake but relaxed state. * Some use **_hypnosis_** to retrieve memories, very dangerous because memories are malleable. Can create **_false memories (False memory)_**- memories that incorporate **_hypnotizer's_** expectations even when not intended. * There are two theories that discuss how **_hypnosis_** works. The first one is **_Dissociation Theory_** – **_hypnotism_** is an extreme form of divided consciousness, and the second one is **_Social Influence Theory_** – people do and report what's expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles. * **_Hypnotism_** is refocused attention, so sometimes it's used to treat pain. There is reduced activity in areas that process sensory input. Although it does not block out pain, it might inhibit attention being brought to pain.

Answer 123

**_Meditation_** – training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness. **_Meditation_** can be guided and focused on something in particulat, like breathing, but **_meditation_** can also be unfocused – mind wanders freely. * In light **_meditation_**, there are more alpha waves than in normal relaxation * In deep **_meditation_**, you have increased theta waves in the brain. * In people who regularly go to deep **_meditation_**, there is increased activity in their prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus, and right anterior insula – increased **_attention control_** (goal of **_meditation_**). * **_Meditation_** can be helpful for people with ADHD or in aging brains.

Answer 124

**_Psychoactive Drugs_**: Drugs that can alter our consciousness, and perceptions. They can alter our perception, increase our mood, calm us down, make us feel more alert, etc. Classified by action and effects they have on our bodies.

Answer 125

The four main categories of psychoactive drugs are **_depressants_**, **_stimulants_**, **_opiates_**, and **_hallucinogens_**.

Answer 126

**_Depressants_** are drugs that lower your body's basic functions and neural activity. **_Depressants_** also lower you CNS (decrease arousal/stimulation in areas of our brain). For example, if I take a **_depressant_**, I will get a decrease in heart rate, drease in blood pressure, decreased processing and reaction time (makes us act/think slowly), etc. There are three categories of depressants: **_alcohol_**, **_barbituates_**, and **_benzodiapines_**.

Answer 127

The most popular depressant is **_alcohol_**. **_Alcoho_**l causes: * Decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control * Lack of coordination, slurring of speech * Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (and form memories)

Answer 128

**_Barbiturates_** are depressants. **_Barbiturates_** are used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. **_Barbiturates_** are used to **_depress_** your central nervous system. * The side effects of **_barbiturates_** are reduced memory, poor judgement, and lack of concentration. If you mix **_barbiturates_** with alcohol, you can literally die.

Answer 129

**_Benzodiazepines_** are the most commonly prescribed suppressant. Subscribed for same things as barbiturates - sleep aids (to treat insomnia) or anti-anxiety or seizures (anticonvulsant) * Enhance your brain’s response to GABA. They open up GABA-activated chloride (Cl-) channels in your neurons, and make neurons more (-) charged. * 3 types: short, intermediate, and long-acting. Short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting is for anxiety. * -zelam, -zolam * **_Benzodiazepines_** and alcohol bind to a site on the GABAa receptor complex that regulates the sensitivity of the receptor complex

Answer 130

**_Opiates_** are used to treat pain and anxiety. For example, heroine and morphine. **_Opiates_** are not a depressant. * **_Opiates_** are used to treat pain becuase they act at the body's receptor sites for endorphins * **_Opiates_** are in a different class than depressants even though they are overlapping for anxiety, rest act on GABA receptors while **_opiates_** act on endorphin Rs. * **_Opiates_** lead to euphoria. The euphoria is the primary reason people take **_opiates_** recreationally.

Answer 131

**_Stimulants_** are drugs that excite your CNS, increase heart rate and blood pressure, increase alertness, more awake, more energetic. **_Stimulants_** can cause people to feel jittery. * Examples of **_stimulants_** include: Caffeine, amphetamines (Adderall), Methamphetamines (Meth), MDMA (Molly/Ecstasy), Cocaine, Nicotine, THC (Marijuana/Cannabis –also a hallucinogen/depressant) * Cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake. * Amphetamines both block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release * Caffeine inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate). * Nicotine acts on acetylcholine * THC works on anandamide. increases dopamine and GABA activity **_Stimulant_** and depressants are functionally opposites but don't actually work on the same things at a neurochemical level. Drinking coffee after drinking alcohol won't make you sober; it will just make you an alert drunk person. **_Stimulants_** are a vasoconstrictor.

Answer 132

Psychoactive Drugs: **_Stimulants_** * Stimulate or intensity neural activity/bodily functions. * Range from caffeine to cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, and ecstasy. In between is nicotine. * (inhibits adenosine receptors) can disrupt your sleep. **Nicotine** also disrupts sleep and can suppress appetite. * At high levels, nicotine can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters (to counteract hyper alertness). * Both physiologically addicting. * Withdrawal symptoms from both. Like anxiety, insomnia, irritability. * is even stronger **_stimulants_** – releases so much dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine that it depletes your brain’s supply. Intense crash and very depressed when it wears off. * Regular users can experience suspicion, convulsions, respiratory arrest, and cardiac failure. * **Amphetamines and methamphetamines** also trigger release of dopamine, euphoria for up to 8 hours. * Highly addictive * Long-term addicts may lose ability to maintain normal level of dopamine

Answer 133

**_Hallucinagens_** are drugs that cause haullucinations– altered perception. There are many types of **_hallucinagens_**. Some **_hallucinagens_** even have medical uses. **_Ecstasy_** – synthetic drug that is both a stimulant and **_hallucinogen_** * **_Ecstasy_** increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria. **_Ecstacy_** also stimulates the body's NS. **_Ecstasy_** can damage neurons that produce serotonin, which has several functions including moderating mood. * **_Ecstasy_** causes hallucinations and heightened sensations, ex. artificial feeling of social connectedness. **_LSD_** – interferes with serotonin, which causes people to experience hallucinations. * Under the influence of **_LSD_**, hallucinations are visual instead of auditory. **_Marijuana_** is also a mild **_hallucinogen_**. The main active ingredient in **_marijuana_** is THC, which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, and smells. * **_Marijuana_** is like alcohol becuase it reduces inhibition and impairs motor and coordination skills. * **_Marijuana_** disrupts memory formation and short-term recall. * **_Marijuana_** stays in the body for up to a week. * **_Marijuana_** is used as a medicine to relieve pain and nausea Some **_hallucinagens_** are used for PTSD treatment. **_Hallucinaogens_** allow people to access painful memories from past that's deteched from strong emotions – so they can come to terms with it.

Answer 134

**_Homeostasis_** is how you maintain temperature, heartbeat, metabolism, etc. **_Homeostasis_** even occurs when you are resing. **_Homeostasis_** takes place when you take drugs.

Answer 135

Topic of homeostasis. * If you take amphetamines (stimulant that increases your heart rate), your body quickly tries to lower your heart rate and get it back to normal. The brain is smart about this. * If you are a regular drug user, you might take it at the same time of day or at the same location. * If you're a cocaine addict, your brain starts to recognize external cues like a room, needles, etc. and knows it's about to get a big dose of drug. The brain tells the body to get a head start and the body then lowers your heart rate before you take drugs. This is the reason you need a higher dose as time progresses * What would happen if you get those cues and don’t get the drug? You get a crash. Your body is below homeostasis (lower HR/metabolism). No high (which would occur if you took the drug) to counteract the slowing down your body has created. * If you’re in a new location but take same level of drugs, you might get overdose. This is because in the new location your body has not prepared by reducing HR/metabolism.

Answer 136

**_Oral_** is a route of drug entry. **_Oral_** is ingesting something. **_Oral_** is one of the *slowest* routes of drug entry becuase it goes through the GI tract, and the **_oral_** route of drug entry takes about a half hour.

Answer 137

**_Inhalation_** is a route of drug entry. **_Inhalation_** is breathing, snorting, or smoking. Once you **_inhale_** a drug, it goes straight to the brain. It takes roughly 10 seconds to reach the brain. **_Inhalation_** is one of the *faster* routes of drug entry.

Answer 138

**_Injection_** is a route of drug entry. **_Injection_** is the most direct and fastest route of drug entry. Intravenous means it goes right to the brain. When a drug gets injected, it takes effect within seconds. **_Injection_** can be very dangerous. It can be very dangerous because you are likely to **_inject_** bacteria or unexpected toxins) especially when using an infected needle.

Answer 139

**_Transdermal_** is a slow route of drug entry. **_Transdermal_** form of drug entry is absorbed through the skin, ex Nicotine patch. The drug in the patch has to be pretty potent, released into the blood stream over several hours.

Answer 140

**_Intramuscular_** is a route of drug entry into the human body. **_Intramuscular_** is stuck into the muscle. **_Intramuscular_** can deliver drugs into your system slowly or quickly. It is quick for an Epipen, but it can also be slow like with vaccines.

Answer 141

As far as routes of drug entry is concerned, a faster route of drug entry implies there is more addictive potential for that drug.

Answer 142

When you experience pleasure, your brain releases a neurotransmitter called **_dopamine_**. **_Dopamine_** is produced in the **_ventral tegmental area (VTA)_**, in the midbrain. * The **_VTA_** sends **_dopamine_** to the **_amygdala_** (controls emotions), **_nucleus accumbens_** (Nacc, controls motor functions), **_prefrontal cortex_** (focus attention and planning), and **_hippocampus_** (part of the temporal lobe, involved in memory formation). * NAcc, **_amygdala_** and **_hippocampus_** are part of the **_mesolimbic pathway_**. Different stimuli activate the reward pathway circuit differently in the brain to different degrees.

Answer 143

**_Tolerance_** means you get used to a drug so you need more of it to achieve the same effect. * Ex. Albert just takes cocaine, this reults in lots of dopamine in the synapse. The post-synaptic neuron has receptors for dopamine. Long-term stimulation can lead to the brain shutting down some receptors on the post synapse; therefore the same amount of drugs won't cause the same high. This is called **_tolerance_**. * **_Tolerance_** is a shift in the dose-response curve that causes decreased sensitivity to a drug due to exposure.

Answer 144

Let's say Albert goes through a period of not having the cocaine he is somewhat used to taking, Albert will then go through **_withdrawal symptoms_**. * Things less strong as cocaine won't give you as strong of an effect, so dopamine levels will decrease and you will feel depressed, anxious, etc. (varies). * Albert will do whatever it takes to ge that high. * Once you built up a tolerance, you need the drug to feel normal again. * However, with time and effort, the brain can reverse back to normal. * Once you’ve built up tolerance, need drug to feel “normal” again, not euphoric. This is a sign you are **_addicted_**.

Answer 145

* **_Drugs_** are substances (substances = formal way to refer to a **_drug_**) that include alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, opioids (heroin/morphine), stimulants (cocaine/amphetamines), hallucinogens (LSD), inhalants, sedatives, caffeine * We have to consider what happens when drugs enter the body and when they exit the body. There are two different processes that can take place: **_intoxication_** and **_withdrawal_**. * **_Inoxication_** refers to behavioral and psychological effects on the person, drug-specific. Ex. "drunk" or "high" * **_Withdrawal_** is when you stop using the drug after a prolonged period of time. We get **_withdrawal_** symptoms. We can become sick or ill, or it can be fatal (depending on the substance/drug) Two stages: acute and post-acute. Can result in **_substance-induced disorders_** – conditions that are caused by substance. Can be substance induced mood disorders (high mood -mania/low mood - depression), or disorders related to anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis (loss of contact with reality, characterized by seeing things, hearing voices, becoming paranoid).

Answer 146

I think *substance-induced disorders* can lead to **_substance use disorders_**. This can cause a real degree of impairment in life, at work, school, or home. * How do you know if someone has a **_substance use disorder_**? You can tell if a person has a **_substance use disorde_**r by looking at their **_usage_**. Are they using increasingly large amounts, do they have stronger cravings, do they take longer time to recover from it, are they failing to cut back, is the drug effecting their obligations at work/home/school? * Second factor to determine if **_substance use disorder_** is the presence of withdrawal. * Also tolerance is a good indicator for **_substance use disorders_**. For some reason, according to shill science, we can not develop a **_substance use disorder_** with **_caffeine_**.

Answer 147

* Drug Addiction is a medical problem that has a physiological or psychological component * Treatments for a drug addiction address both physiological + psychological symptoms. * For serious addictions, hospitalization might be needed as the patient goes through withdrawal, to ensure patient doesn’t hurt themselves, and the patient gets used to operating w/o drug

Answer 148

To adequately treat a drug addiction, you have to undergo **_detoxification (detox)_** –separating the addict from the drug. Somes **_detoxification_** requires strong medications for strong addictions (have to break the addiction cycle). We often have to address symptoms such as vomiting, nausea, pain, etc. * For example, opiates such as heroine acts at neural receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. **_Methadone_** reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and the user can't experience the high becuase the receptors are already filled by **_methadone_**. * For stimulants like tobacco, medications replace nocotine by delivering low levels of nicotine through a patch, or deliver chemicals that act on nicotine receptor in the brain. In this case prevents release or reuptake of dopamine. This helps to reduce cravings. * For alchoholics, meds block receptors in the reward system of alcohol. It also reduces symptoms of withdrawal. It is important to prevent relapse during this early stage by minimizing negative symptoms.

Answer 149

A treatment for substance use disorders can be **_inpatient_**. **_Inpatient_** treatments require residence at a hospital or treatment facility. **_Outpatient_** means they can live at home and come in for treatment.

Answer 150

**_Cognitive behavioral therapy_** is a way to treat substance use disorders. **_Cognitive behavioral therapy_** (**_CBT_**) addresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction. **_Cognitive behavioral therapy_** makes the person recognize problematic situations and develop more positive thought patterns and coping strategies, and monitor cravings. * **_Cognitive behavioral therapy_** is good because it is long lasting.

Answer 151

**_Motivational interviewing_** is a method to treat substance use disorders. **_Motivational interviewing_** involves working with a patient to find intrinsic motication to change. **_Motivational interviewing_** involves very few sessions and can be a doorway for patients to engage in another treatment.

Answer 152

**_Group meetings_** are a method to treat substance use disorders. **_Group Meeting_**s such as AA involve a 12-step program–acceptance, surrender, and active involvement in meetings. * There is strong evidence to show that **_group meetings_** are helpful.

Answer 153

**_Relapse_** is when patient can slip and go back. Depends on environmental triggers and drug they were addicted too. More addictive substances make **_relapse_** more likely. Encountering anything that one used to associate with the drug makes relapse more likely as well. This is why it’s hard for people to stay clean (same situation, group of friends, apartments, etc – these cues can trigger **_relapse_** ...why CBT can be helpful).

Answer 154

**_Divided Attention_**: attention is a limited resource. Can’t split it very well. Doing 2x at once you end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously. **_Divided attention_** occurs when an individual must perform two tasks which require attention, simultaneously.

Answer 155

When you divide your attention on one task between 2 (ex: watch TV and studying together) you’re exercising your **_selective attention_**: you are selecting one at a time (either TV or studying – can’t do both). It’s like a flashlight on your attention –you can move it around at any spot. At any given moment illuminating one area of interest. Only have ability to focus on one thing at the exclusion of everything else.

Answer 156

There are two types of cues that direct our attention: **_exogenous cues_** and **_endogenous cues_** * **_Exogenous cues_** (or external cues) are cues in which we don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention. For example, these could be bright colors, a loud noise, "pop out effect". * **_Endogenous cues_** (or internal cues) are cues that require internal knowledge to understand the cue nd the intention to follow it. For example, a mouse arrow. We would need to an internal arrow to know what an errow is to follow it and know it is not just a random line. The **_cocktail party effect_** is the ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name.

Answer 157

**_In-attentional blindness_** – aka **Perceptual Blindness** - we aren’t aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. “miss something right in front of you”

Answer 158

**_Change blindness_** – fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment. (Different from in-attentional blindness, a subtle but importance difference) ex: don’t notice when your mom gets a haircut. * Ex. Famous study done where a person asks a stranger in a big city to give directions. The person is swapped with another person and the direction giver does not notice that this was a different person that they were now giving directions too

Answer 159

**_Selective attention_** is the ability to focus on task at hand while ignoring other information.

Answer 160

**_Shadowing task_** – Experiment that studies selective attention. In this task you are wearing headphones and they have two different sounds in each. Left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. Focus on one ear and ignore the other (selective attention). Based on the unattended information that we do and don’t end up comprehending - we can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in other ear. 3 theories: Broadbent's Early Selection Theory, Deutch & Deutch's Late selection Theory, and Treisman's attenuation Theory. (Note there is still debate on which theory is best).

Answer 161

1) **_Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory_** o All information in environment goes into **sensory register** (which briefly registers/stores EVERYTHING/all sensory information you receive such as words, clicks, sirens, etc) then the info gets transferred to **selective filter** right away which identifies what you are supposed to be attending too via basic physical characteristics and filters out stuff in unattended ear based on things you don’t need to understand to identify (based on voice, pitch, speed, accents, etc) and finally information moves to **_perceptual processes_** identifies friend’s voice and assigns meaning to words. Then you can engage in other cognitive processes such as deciding how to respond. Sensory register –\>selective filter–\>perceptual process–\>Conscious. * Some problems – if you completely filter out unattended info, shouldn’t be able identify your own name in unattended ear –\>but, you can as explained by Cocktail party effect.

Answer 162

2) **_Deutch & Deutch’s Late Selection Theory_** * Places Broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. This means that you DO register and assign everything meaning but then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness. * Deutsch and Deutsch’s late selection theory moved the selective filter from before perception to after the perceptual process. * Sensory register–\>perceptual process–\>selective filter–\>Conscious * Some problems – This whole process has to occur quickly, but given limited resources of attention and knowing are brains are super-efficient it seems wasteful to spend all that effort assigning meaning to things first which you won’t ever need. o Acronym: The Dutch pay attention (perceptualize) to EVERYTHING!

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3) **_Treisman’s Attenuation Theory_** * Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator – weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important. * Treisman’s Attenuation theory replaced the selective filter with an attenuator, which selectively allows the attended message to be processed to a greater extent than the unattended message. * Sensoryregister–\>attenuator–\>perceptual process–\>–\>Conscious § Acronym: Triessman is SHARP as a T. He is smart enough to only attenuate and then perceive. NOTE: Still debate about which theory is best, but the three theories are pivotal in our understanding of selective attention. Important to consider because attention is important in all other cognitive functions we perform

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**_Selective Attention_**: We take information from our environment, but we don’t consciously process all of it. You probably see everything, but don’t attend to it consciously. We can attend to only a small amount of info @ a time, but we see a lot of info!

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**_Spotlight model of attention_**. Selective attention – takes info from 5 senses, but don’t pay attention to everything. * Aware of things on an unconscious level – ex. **_Priming_**, where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven’t been consciously paying attention to it. * We’re primed to respond to our name. Why it’s a strong prime for pulling our attention. **_Resource model of attention_** – we have limited resources in attention. Resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things @ once. * Both models say something about our ability to multitask – not very good at it. * Supported by research study: ex. Dichotic listening task, you aren’t able to focus on both the “attended channel” and the “unattended channel”. You are able to recall info from the attended channel, but not the unattended channel.

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1. **_Task similarity_** – ex. Listening to the radio while writing a paper. It is better to listen to classical music, becuase it is harder to multitask with similar tasks. 2. **_Task difficulty_** – harder tasks require more focus. 3. **_Practice_** – activities well practiced become automatic, or things that occur without need for attention. Whether task is automatic or controlled (harder)

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The **_information processing model_** proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from the environment, process it, and output decisions. * The **_information processing model_** assumes serial processing; however, the human brain has the capacity for parallel processing * The first stage is getting the input – occurs in sensory memory (sensory register). The sensory register is a temporary register of all the senses you are taking in. These two are part of the sensory register. * You have **_iconic_** (what you see, lasts half a second) and **_echoic_** (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds) memory

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**_Working memory_** is what you are thinking about at the moment. **_Working memory_** is memory that is stored while it is held in attention. The magic number is 7– your brain can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time. The government knew this. This is the reason phone numbers are 7 digits long. * Explains the **_serial position effect_** (**_primacy_** and **_recency_** effects) * Visual + spatial info are processed in the **_visuo-spatial sketchpad_**, and verbal information (any words + numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed in the **_phonological loop_**. * What about visual + verbal information? We need a coordination of the two – the **_central executive_** fills that role. The **_central executive_** creates an integrated representation that stores the combined and sythesized information in the **_episodic buffer_** to be stored into long-term memory. * The **_dual coding hypothesis_** says it's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. The **_method of loci_** encorporates the **_dual coding hypothesis_** idea to help people remember things better. The **_method of loci_**–imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place leaving a visual representation of the topic to be remembered.

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The final stage is **_long-term memory_**. The capacity of the **_long-term memory_** is unlimited. There are two main catagories of **_long term memory_**: **_explicit_** (**_declarative_**) and **_implicit_** (**_non-declarative_**).

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**_Explicit Memory_** /Declarative are facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe. **_Explicit memory_** is a type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and information. **_Explicit memory_** can be divided into two categories, **_episodic_** and **_semantic_**. * Anytime you take vocabulary test or state capitals you’re using **_semantic memory_** (has to do with words/facts). So remembering simple facts like meanings of words. * Second type is **_episodic memory_** (event-related memories...like your last birthday party.).

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**_Implicit memories_** are long term memories that involve things you may not articulate – such as riding a bicycle, **_procedural memories_**. Other is **_priming_** – previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event.

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**_Encoding_** is transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into the permanent store in long-term memory. **_Encoding_** is more successful when more cognitive effort is actively used. Combining encoding strategies is more useful than using only one. **_Encoding Specificity_**: Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning.

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**_Rote rehearsal_** – Say the same thing over and over remember. least effective technique. Ex. Remembering someone’s name is bob that you just met, and you can’t after a while. Doesn’t require you to process the information. More successful techniques involve tying in the new information to previously known information. * **_Rote rehearsal_** is simply repeating information. It requires the least amount of cognitive effort.

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**_Chunking_** – we group info we’re getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization. * o Ex: Chunk the following list : bananas, oranges, blueberries, bread, rice, chicken, peanuts, baking soda, flour, eggs, butter * Bananas, orange, blueberries = fruits * Bread, rice = grains * Chicken , peanuts = proteins * Baking soda, flour, eggs, butter = baking supplies * Example Illustrates that it’s easier to remember things if they are chunked/tied together in some way.

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**_Mnemonic Devices_** – Link what you are trying to learn into previously exist long-term information that is already in your memory. Types of mnemonics: * **_Imagery_** - crazier the better * **_Pegword system_** - Verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number – EX.1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door, 5 is skydive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, etc. Then you pair list to each of the words you are trying to remember using imagery (another mnemonic technique) like Broccoli looks like a tree so it’s 4th on the list. * **_Method of loci_** - good for remembering things in order, link info to locations. Tie information you need to remember to certain stops along a route that you already know. Ex. Bananas raining down on bus stop you get on, next stop there are oranges being thrown at, and the final stop you have a cat eating blueberries. Again, this method also ties imagery. * **_Pegword + Method of Loci_** (two methods that are good for remembering things in order that you already know. Verbally anchors and links words). * **_Acronym_** – each of the letter of a popular word you know stands for the first letters of a set of words you need to remember. [ex. HOMES to remember Great lakes of the US – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie and Superior]

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**_Self-referencing_** – think about new info and how it relates to you personally. Ex: Imagine learning something about history, you then learn the information by talking to the general. * Related idea: preparing to teach – idea that you are learning this material in order to teach it to someone else. You learn it a lot better because you put more effort into organizing it and understanding the information the best you can. (involves great deal of processing)

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**_Spacing_** – spreading out study sessions overtime in shorter periods rather than cramming them into one study session. [spacing effect] * Ex: Most people think if they have 5 hours to study they should study immediately before so it is “fresh in your mind” but if you put in 5x 1 hr sessions you will learn the information in the long term far better. One reason it is thought to be helpful is it lets you know what you don’t know while you start your studying and it also introduces a form of self-testing so you are able to prepare yourself. Most mnemonic devices/encoding techniques = greater likelihood of remembering information later. Do require more effort, but make studying quicker/more effective.

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**_Retrieval_**: Trying to remember/call up a memory of something you learned before. Successful retrieval depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present at encoding and cues present at retrieval. Best types of cues are the associations that form when you are actually encoding. **_Retrieval_** - Anytime you pull something out of long-term memory, and bringing it into conscious memory (working memory) you’re engaging in retrieval. o Ex: Process is occurring every time you need to remember a name, bday, directions, etc.

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**_Priming_** – prior activation of nodes/associations, often without our awareness. Ex. hearing a story about apple and asked to name word starting with A. Then you say the word apple for that word. Ex: reading a story that is about rabbits and then hearing the word hair/hare – you are more likely to think of the word as hare.

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**_Context_** is the environment you encode and take the test. Scuba divers who learned and tested on the sam eplace scored better than learned in one place and took the test in another. But not always the case, if you can't take the test in the same place studying in different places gives you different cues for retrieval –so multiple cues that will help you.

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**_State-dependent_** is your state at the moment. For example, if you leanr something while drunk you'll remember it the next time you are drunk. You could also combine your mood with an advertisement – next time you are in that moodm you will remember the product.

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Free recall (hardest), cued recall (medium), and recognition (easiest)

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**_Free recall_** ( this is a retrieval cue) - no cues in recalling. A person is better at recalling first items on a list (**_primacy_**) as well as the last few (**_recency_**). It is harder for an individual to recall items on a list in the middle. The curve is called the **_serial position curve/effect_**.

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**_Cued recall_** ( this is a retrieval cue)– having extra clues to remember the workds. Still have to produce an answer but still get more cues to help you. The added cues help you retrieve the information from your long term memory. The more retrieval cues you get, the more you tend to do better than free recall. For example, giving you the cue of "Pl\_\_\_\_\_" and asking for what word was on a list and you answer "planet". This would be very easy.

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**_Recognition_** ( this is a retrieval cue) – best out of the three tests, meaning the word is the easiest to recall using this method. You present two words, and you say which one you heard. The retrieval of the correct word is highly likely. For example, you can ask what is on that list. Fork or spoon, and then you answer fork because it was on the list intially presented and it is in front of you now.

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Brain doesn't save memories exactly how it was recorded into your brain. Every time we retrieve a memory, we change it in small ways, according to our goals/mood/environment. Or due to our own desires. If gap exists, the brain will fill it in with something desireable.

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**_Schema_** (plural schemata or schemas) describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them.[1] It can also be described as a mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information.[2] Schemata influence attention and the absorption of new knowledge: people are more likely to notice things that fit into their schema, while re-interpreting contradictions to the schema as exceptions or distorting them to fit.

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Sometimes humans recollections of event contain **_false information_** in them. **_False information_** is inaccurate recollections of an event.

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**_Misleading Information_** – observed video of a car crash, and asked how fast cars were going. Some people got the word hit, and some people go the word "smash". If people recieved the word "smashed", the people were mor elikey to say there was glass on the ground. * When people recall information they often forget the information's source – an error in **_source monitoring_**, ex. angry with someone but you forgot it happened in a dream. Or recognize someone but don't know from where.

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**_Emotional memories_** can be positive or negative, but highly vivid memories are called **_flashbuld memories_**. Even if **_flashbulb_** or **_emotional memories_** seem as real as life, they are still susceptible to reconstruction.

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The brain doesn't grow new cells to store memories – connections between neuron strengthen. The strengthening of neurons and neuron connections is called **_long-term potentiation_**. **_Long term potentiation_** is one example of of *synaptic plasticity*.

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Neurons communicate using electrochemical signals –through synapse. Presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters on on post-synaptic neurons, allowing Na and Ca to flow in. The difference in charge between the outside and inside is called the **_potential_**.

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With repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neurn converts into greater post-synaptic neuron –stronger synapse, and when it lasts longer called **_long-term potentiation_**. This is learning!

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**_Decay_** – when we do not encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we can't at all anymore. The connections will become weaker over time. The initial rate of forgetting is high but levels off over time. * **_Ebbinghaus_** was the first investigator of decay. He found this rate of forgetting was very fast, but if he remembered it after the initial stage, it then levelled out.

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Just because you can't retrieve something doesn't mean it's completely gone. How long it takes you to **_relearn_** something is an indicator of how well you learned it initially. This foundation is called **_savings_**. This means that some foundation of the memory still existed even if he couldn't reproduce it. * Works with procedural skills too! ex. piano

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Sometimes there is an interference to learning. There are two types of interference: **_retroactive_** and **_proactive_**. * **_Retroactive interference_** occurs when new learning impairs old information. It refers to the later information interfering with memory for earlier information * ex. Writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address. * **_Proactive interference_** - something you learned in the past impairs learning in the future. Earlier information interferes with later information. * ex. New password learning – prior w learning impairs ability to learn new one.

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Aging is a natural process and with it come changes in memory. Most people associate aging with declines in cognitive performance, but some abilities decline, some remain stable, and some improve.

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Some cognitive abilities remain **_stable_** throughout the aging process. These include **_implicit memory_** (aka procedural memories such as riding a bike) and **_recognition memory_** (being able to pick something out of a list).

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Some cognitive abilities **_improve_** throughout the aging process. Semantic memories improve till around age 60, so older adults have better verbal skills (they are great at crossword puzzles!). Also, **_crystallized IQ_** (ability to use knowledge and experience) is improved. **_Crystallized IQ_** is typically tested with analogy tests and reading comprehension tests. Aging individuals are also better at emotional reasoning.

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Some cognitive abilities **_decline_** throughout the aging process. Recall becomes more difficult (although recognition is stable), episodic memories are imparied (forming new episodic memories is difficult, old memories are stable), processing speed (older peolpe have a harder time outputting a response), and divided attention (becomes harder to switch attention between task and becomes easily distracted). Also **_prospective memory_** (remembering to do things in the future) is decreased.

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* Excessive forgetting can be problematic * **_Dementia_** is forgetting to the point of interfering with normal life – results from excessive damage to brain tissue, ex. From strokes. * The most common form of **_dementia_** is **_Alzheimer's Disease_**. Under this disease condition neurons die off over time. The earliest symptoms are memory loss, lack of attention, bad at planning, loss of semantic memory, and loss of abstract thinking. As it progresses, there becomes a more severe language difficulties and greater memory loss, loss of emotional stability, and loss of bodily functions. The cause of the disease is unknown, but there is a build up of **_amyloid plaques_** in the brain.

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**_Korsakoff's Syndrome_** is caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. **_Korsakoff's syndrome_** is caused by malnutrirtion, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism. * **_Thiamine_** converts carbohydrates into the glucose cells need for energy. **_Thiamine_** is important for normal functioning neurons. * At the start of **_Korkasoff's syndrome_**, damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and/or memory loss. At this stage, it is called **_Wernicke's Encephalopathy_** – precursor to K**_orsakoff's Syndrome_**. If **_Wernicke's Encephalopathy_** is diagnosed in time it can reverse the damage or at least prevent further damage. If untreated, it will progress to **_Korsakoff's syndrome_**, which has a main symptom of severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation ( patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories). * **_Korsakoff's syndrome_** is not progressive, unlike Alzheimer's Disease. If people are diagnosed and treated, they can get better. * The main symptom is severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation for **_korsakoff's syndrome_**. * To treat **_Korsakoff's Syndrome_** you have to be put on a healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins, and relearn things.

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**_Retrograde amnesia_** is the inability to recall information previously encoded, and **_anterograde amnesia_** is the inability to encode new memories.

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**_Piaget_** argued children weren't miniature adults. Beleived they actively construct their understanding of the world as they grow.

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Piaget's stage of cognitive development. 0-2 years – children are said to be in the **_sensorimotor stage_** (smell, hearing, tough etc. +active). During this stage, they develop **_object permanence_**. Initially, they do not realize objects still exist if they can't see them. Then, they develop **_object permanence_** and realize the object still exists if it can not see the object. You can also use accomodation to acquire knowledge about novel experiences. Baby ants riding a motorcycle.

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2-7 years (approx.) – **_Preoperational stage_**. When children are going to develop/engage in **_pretend play_**. They are very **_egocentric_** in this stage, and they have no empathy.

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7-11 years – **_concrete operational stage_**. In this stage, they learn the idea of **_conservation_**. Can do test to find out if they are in this stage – take 2 glasses with the same amount of water, pour one into short fat glass and other into tall skinny glass, and ask the child which one has more. Before this stage will say tall glass, but once they reach the concrete operational stage, have same amount of water. Also begin to learn **_empathy_**.

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12+ Formal operational stage – reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences. Where sophisticated moral reasoning begins to take place. * Later, developmentalists have come and figured out that children don’t necessarily develop these abilities in certain age brackets, but they do tend to progress in a predictable fashion and thanks to Piaget now we know that children are more than just miniature adults.

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We are excellent problem solvers. Well-defined (clear starting and ending point) and ill defiend (more ambiguous starting/ending point and no obviously stated goals) problems.

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**_Problem Solving_**: moving from a current state to a goal state. This is called solving a problem. * Can be something as simple as starting a YouTube video

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A method of problem solving: **_Trial + error._** **_Trial + error_** is taking random guesses until something finally works. It is not efficient.

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A method of problem solving: **_Algorithm_** – methodical approach. A logical step-by-step procedure of trying solutions until you hit the rigth one. It is not efficient, but you are guaranteed to find the correct solution enventually.

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A method of problem solving: **_Heuristics_**. A **_heuristic_** is a mental shortcut to find a solution quicker than the other 2, ex. Focusing on one category of solutions. * **_Means-end analysis_** – we analyze the main problem and break it down into smaller problems, and reduce differences between the problem and goal. * **_Working backwards_** – start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to the current state. It is used in mathematical proofs.

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A method of problem solving: **_Intuition_**. Using **_intuition_** as a method of problem solving has a high chance of error becuse you are relying on **_instinct_**.

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**_Fixation_** – Getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem. * If we can start solving the problem, it typically occurs through an **_insight_** – that aha moment. **_Insight_** is hard to predict and hard to encourage, particularly when you are **_fixated_** on seeing a problem from the same inefficient approach. * Or we can let problem **_incubate_** – insight comes after some time.

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**_Type 2 Error_** = False Negative, and a **_Type 1 Error_** = False Positive

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**_Decision making_**: We make a judgement of the desirability/probability of a certain outcome You use **_heuristic_** – a mental shortcut to make a decision, a quick decision rule/rule of thumb. Lots of kinds of heuristics used for decision making. Help us make decisions. * o Ex.. What has a higher risk- Shark attack vs firework accident?

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**_Availability Heuristic_** – using examples that come to mind. Helpful, but our easily rememberable experiences don't match the real state of the world. * The **_availability heuristic_** is a decision making heuristic where choices are based on quick, easily accessible examples.

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**_Representativeness Heuristic_** – a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer, and look to match the prototype – a given concept to what is typical/representative. * Ex: Linda is outspoken and very bright, majored in philosophy and as a student she participated in antinuclear demonstrations and organizations that fought discrimination. What is more likely? Linda is a Feminist bank teller or a bank teller. Most people will say she is more like a feminist bank teller even if they don’t know feminists or anyone like Linda. She fits you prototype of how a feminist would act (she is representative of a feminist). * This can lead to **_conjunction fallacy_**, which means occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one (ex. Feminist Bank Teller vs. bank teller – actually more likely she is just a bank teller, but peole tend to think the probability of 2 events occuring together is higher than the probability of one occurring alone).

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**_Availability Heuristic_** vs. **_Representativeness Heuristic_** – **_availability heuristic_** = actual memories in mind, and **_representativeness heuristic_** = not thinking of exact memories, but thinking of a prototype of idea.

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**_Biases_** are things that prevent us from making the correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made. Here are three **_bias_** types below. * **_Overconfidence_** – ex. Going into th etest without knowing lot of information.It could be due to fluency (ease of processing) during studying. Ex. Can happen in a test if you never tested yourself to see if you really knew the answers. You can over estimate the ability to produce answerswhen you need too. You can also experience overconfidence in an argument. * **_Belief Perseverence_** – ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts, ex. During the elections you leanred about and then ignored facts about someone you like. * **_Confirmation Bias_** – actively seek out only confirming facts. Ex. Only read stories about how wonderful a candidate was.

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**_Framing Effects_** – how you present the decision or data can affect decisions as well. For example, There is a disease that willkill 600 people. Option A states that there is a 100% chance 200 people will be aved, and option B states that there is a 33.3% chance that all 600 people will be saved. Which one would you pick? OR There is a A. 100% chance 400 people will die vs. B. 1/3 chanve no one dies and 2/3 chance 600 will die. * In the first you'd pick A. In the second, you would pick B. * Basically, you would pick the option that is presented in a way that primarily focuses on the positive.

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* To solve problems, you have to acess information already stored in your brain. * **_Semantic Networks_** are concepts that are organized in the mind in terms of connected ideas. Parallel to how info might be stored in a computer. Links can be shorter for closely related ideas, or longer for less related ideas.

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The first idea of a **_semantic network_** model that was proposed was **_hierarchal_** –higher order to lower order categories * Ex. Animal -\> bird -\> ostrich * More specific characteristics like sings, long legs, stored at lower nodes. Can breathe at higher nodes. * The longer it takes us to verify the connection between nodes, the longer it takes for us to make that link or the farther away that link is).

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The first model of a semantic network was **_hierachal_**. However, later studies showed that a **_hierarchal semantic network_** was NOT true for all animals/categories. For example, people verify that a pig is an animal faster than it takes people to verify that a pig is a mammal. Therefore, a man proposed a **_modified semantic network_**. * Rather than **_hierarchal_**, the **_modified semantic network_** says every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. * The **_modified semantic network_** means all ideas in the head are connected together. When you activate one concept, pulling related concepts with it, it is called **_spreading activation_**. ( This can explain false memories, or remembering the wrong but related information).

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* IQ is Intelligence Quotient * What is intelligence? Inelligence is a mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems, and use your knowledge to adapt t new situations. IQ tests use numerical scores to meaure aptitude for those tasks and compare them to how ell others do.

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One theory for what intelligence is is that there's **_1 general intelligence_**. * Evidence comes from the fact that people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of tests. For example, a person with really good math skills will likely also have really good verbal skills. * The factor underlying these consistent abilities is called **_g factor_** (g = general intellgence)

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There is also support for IQ theories on there being **_3 intelligences_** – analytical (Academic), creative (generate novel ideas and adapt), practical (solve ill-defined probems). * IQ tests only measure analytical intelligence

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Another psychologist proposed **_emotional intelligence_**, which is the ability to percieve, understand, and manage emotions in interactions with others.

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Intelligence can also be separated an conceptualized in two major categories: **_fluid_** and **_crystallized_** intelligence. **_Fluid_** is the ability to reason quickly and abstractly. **_Crystallized_** refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. * **_Fluid_** intelligence tends to decrease a we move into older adulthood, and **_crystalized_** intelligence increases or stays the same as we grow older.

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On what makes or forms one intelligence, there is the question of **_nature vs. nurture_**. How much of intelligence is due to genes and how much is due to the environment/experiences * Study heritability by looking at correlational scores of twins who grew up in different homes, identical twins raised together, and fraternal twins raised together. * What e know is of the 3 groups, the strongst correlation is between identical twin raised together. identical twins raised apart is not as high, suggesting there is an environmental component. Fraternal twins are even lower, suggesting also a genetic component.

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As of right now, there is no recipe for structuring an environment to make a genius, even though we know environments that would impair intelligence.

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Some people have a **_fixed mindset_** (intelligence is biologically set and unchanging), and others have a **_growth mindset_** (intelligence is chageable if you learn more). Those with the **_growth mindset_** accomplish more.

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There are generally four ideas on intelligence: 1. Spearman's idea of general intelligence – single g factor responsible for intelligence that underliesperformance on all cognitive tasks 2. Gardner's idea of 8 intelligences– differentiates intelligenceintodifferent modalities. 3. Galton's ideaof hereditary genius – human ability is hereditary 4. Binet'sidea of mental age – how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years.

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There are many ideas on language and cognition. The spectrum of what they try to explain ranges from explaining that langugage influences your thought to the thought influences your language. I guess there are theories on language and language development. * Behaviorists– are empiricists that believe language is just conditioned behavior. Nativists – rationalists that believe language must be innate. Materialist – look at what happens in the brain when peope think/speak/write.

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Some languages only have 2 words for color. But does that mean we think about color differently? Great Language Debate * **_Universalism_** - thought determines language completely. * **_Piaget_** – he believed once children were able to think a certain way, and then developed language to describe those thoughts. * **_Vygotsky_** (middle) – language and thought are both independent, but converge through development. Eventually learn to use them at the same time. * **_Linguistic Determinism_** – weak and strong hypothesis * Weak: language influences thought (reading right to left vs. left to right influences what direction youamagine girl pushing boy) * Strong (aka **_Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis_**): people understand their world through language, nad language in turn shapeshow we experience the world. For example, there is a tribe called the Hopi tribe without grammatical sense – they could not think about time in the same way as us. * Of the four theories out there, no one really knows which one is correct.

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**_Nativist_** (innatist) perspective – children are born with the ability to learn language. The nativist perspective is associated with **_Naom Chomsky_**. **_Naom Chomsky_** thought humans had a **_language aquisition device_** (**_LAD_**, later renamed univeral grammar) that allowed them to learn language. Idea that is ability is exists has support from languages sharing the same basic elements like nouns, verbs, etc. So this allows children to pick up on that. It goes along with the idea of a "critical period". The critical period is thought to be from birth to age 9, which is the period of time a child is most able to learn a language.

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**_Behavioral Learning Theory_** of Language Development – children aren't born with anything, only acquire language through reinforcement. The child learns to say "mama" because everytime they say that, the mom reinforces the child. However, it doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before.

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The **_interactionist theory_** or approach to language development believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. Children's desire to communicate with adults makes them learn language. The **_Interactionist Theory_** of Language Development is associated with **_Vygotsky_**.

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* **_Behaviorists_** – BF Skinner's behaviourist model says infants are trained in language by operant conditioning. * The **_linguistic relativity hypothesis_** asserts that congition and perception are determined by language one speaks.

Answer 241

For 90% of people, anguage is in the **_left_** hemisphere. In whatever hemisphere is dominant, there are two main areas associated with language: **_Broca's area_** (speak) and **_Wernicke's area_** (understand) * When **_Broca's area_** is damaged, people have trouble producing speech. **_Broca's aphasia_** * **_Wernicke's aphasia_** is a different pattern of behavior –words they make do not make any sense. Can't understand what others say. * When both broca's area and wernicke's area are damaged, there is **_global aphasia_**. * 2 areas are connected by a bundle of nerves **_arcuate fasciculus_**, also found in deaf people who knowsign language. Not specific to spoken language, but brain adapts to whatever modality is needed for communication. * When this is damaged, **_conduction aphasia_** – ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted.

Answer 242

* **_Agraphia_** (inability to write), and **_anomia_** (inability to name things). * Language is an example of big tasks brokeb into small takss, spread into other parts of the brain. Good thing becuase if you have localized brain damage, you won't completely lose everything. When functionsare divided, it is easier for your brain to adapt – ex. When stroke affects the left hemisphere, and you can't speak, over time with therapy some can retrain other speech parts of the brain by creating new connections – **_neural plasticity_**. Can speak again with some fluency.

Answer 243

If you sever the **_corpus callosum_**, it will disrupt communication in your brain. Disrupting the **_corpus callosum_** will create a **_split-brain patient_**. This surgery creates side effects with language – right side of brain can't communicate with the language side. * The left side of the brain is needed for language, and the right side of the brain is needed for action/perception/attention. * If you see the object on the left, you won't be able to name it. Can pick it up with you left hand (since right side controls the left), but the object has to be in the right visual field beforethe brain can name it. * For example, showing colors on the left side of the visual field, information is sent to the right hemisphere, which is responsible for perception/attention, but can't speak it, because left brain is needed for language.

Answer 244

**_Limbic System_**: A set of structures in the brain, and many structures play an important role in regulating emotions. Experts can’t agree on what structures make up the entire **_limbic system_**. * The **_limbic system_** is responsible for the storage/retrieval of memories, especially ones tied to emotions. * Structure of the **_limbic system_**: acronym: hippo wearing a HAT (HAT Hippo). Mnemonic: hippo wearing a HAT. Hypothalamus, amygdala,

Answer 245

**_Thalamus_** – sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste/etc. end up in the **_thalamus_**, which directs them to appropriate areas in the cortex. Emotions can be contigent on senses. **_Smell_** is the only sense that bypasses the **_thalamus_** – goes to areas closer to the amygdala.

Answer 246

**_Amygdala_**–aka aggression center. If you stimulate the **_amygdala_**, it produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety. If you destroy the **_amygdala_**, you get a mellowing effect. **_Kluver-Bucy syndrome_** – bilateral destruction of the **_amygdala_**, can result in **_hyperorality_** (put things in mouth a lot), **_hypersexuality_**, and disinhibited behavior. This is also part of the limbic system.

Answer 247

**_Hippocampus_** – key role in forming new memories. The **_hippocampus_** converts STM (short term memory) into LTM (long term memory). If your **_hippocampus_** is destroyed, you still have your old memories intact, you just can't make new memories (**_anterograde amnesia_**). This is part of the limbic system.

Answer 248

**_Hypothalamus_** (hypo – below, thalamus, tiny structure) – for limbic system, it regulates the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - (fight or flight vs. rest and digest). The **_hypothalamus_** controls the endocrine system by triggerring hormones like epinephrine/norepinephrine.; responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, and sex. This is part of the limbic system.

Answer 249

Role of cerebral cortex in emotions. One way to view the brain is in terms of left and right hemispheres. * Positive emotions evoke more activity on the **_left side_** of your head, and negative emotions evoke more activity on the **_right side_** of your head. * People who are more positive and cheerful have more activity on the **_left side_** of their brain, and people who are more depressed and timid have more activity on the **_right side_** of their brain.

Answer 250

If you divide the brain into functional divisions, you can focus on the **_prefrontal cortex_**. * The **_prefrontal cortex_** is responsible for many higher order functins, everything that makes humans humans. The **_prefrontal cortex_** is responsible for executive control - solving problems, making decison, and how you act in social situations. * Phineas Gage had an iron rod penetrate his **_prefrontal cortex_**. After the incident, he became rude, rought, and generally behaved inappropriately.

Answer 251

The **_autonomic nervous system_** is involved in your emotional response. The physiological changes that occur which aren't under your control are due to the **_autonomic nervous system_** (**_ANS_**). * The **_autonomic nervous system_** has two branches – **_sympathetic_** (fight or flight) and **_parasympathetic_** (rest and digest). Each branch reults in different actions that occur in your body.

Answer 252

The **_sympathetic nervous system_** is one of the branches of the autonomic nervous system. The **_sympathetic nervous system_** is involved in the fight or flight response. * **_Sympathetic_**: "results due to fear" – effects: * pupils dilate (want to be able to see better/bring in more light), * Decrease in salivation (nervous when you are doing public speaking) * increase in repiration rate (more O2) * increase in heart rate (more O2) * Increase in glucose release (more energy) * Increase in adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine * Decrease in digestion (takes too much energy, want to divert the energy to other areas)

Answer 253

The **_parasympathetic nervous system_** is one of the branches of the autonomic nervous system. The **_parasympathetic nervous system_** is involved in the "rest and digest response; it has the opposite effects of the **_sympathetic nervous system_**. * pupils constrict * Increased salivation * Decreased respiratory rate/decreased heart rate (back to normal) * Increased glucose storage (digesting food) * Decreased adrenaline * Increased digestion.

Answer 254

Emotions are subjective experiences accompanied by **_physiological_**, **_behavioral_**, and **_cognitive_** changes. Each of these things are interrelated. Every emotion produces different physiological changes in the body which can include changes in patterns of brain activation, neurotransmitter production, autonomic nervous system activity * **_Physiological_** components – when surprised, your heart rate might increase, muscles will tense, and your temperature will increase. * **_Cognitive_** – vay fromperson to person, they're mental assessments that can include appraisal of what is happening, thoughts and expectations about a situation. Cognitive experiences result from emotions, and can cause emtions. Ex. Someone might hate a surprise party. * **_Behavioural_** – emotions produce different behavioral responses evident from body language or facial expression. Expressions vary by individual and are interpretted differently from culture to culture. Emotions are temporary (unlike moods which can last much longer, example of mood: anxiety). Emotions can be positive or negative. Can vary in intensity. Emotions can be involuntary (why we use phrases such as falls in love, explodes with range, overwhelmed w/ excitement)

Answer 255

**_Paul Ekman_** found **_6 main universal emotions_** which can be identified by everyone around the world – **_happiness_**, **_sadness_**, **_fear_**, **_disgust_**, **_anger_**, and **_surprise_**. Consistent facial expressions across culture and easily recognizable. (acronym: 6 universal emotions are: FAHDSS) * Darwin hypothesized ability to understand emotion is an innate ability that allowed them better survival.

Answer 256

Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about. * The **_James–Lange Theory_** of emotion states that the experience of emotion is due to the perception of physiological responses. For example, holdin a pet cat leads to increased heart rate/neurotransmitters/smile, then happiness. When you are sad, you don't cry becuase you are sad, you're sad because you cry. * Event –\> Physiological response (PR) –\> Interpretation of PR –\>Emotion

Answer 257

Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about. * **_Cannon-Bard Theory_** – disagreed with James-Lange, noticed many different emotions had the same physiological responses. **_Cannon-Bard_** believed a physiological response and emotion occurred simultaneously. * Simultaneously experience arousal and aggression. * An event leads to a physiological response and emotion at the same time.

Answer 258

Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about. * **_Schachter-Singer_** (two factor theory of emotion) – physiological and cognitive responses occur simultaneously form the experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/identify a reason for the situation. * Event–\>PR + Identify reason for the situation (PR) (consciously)–\>Emotion

Answer 259

Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about. * **_Lazarus Theory_** – experience of emotion depends on how the situation is appraised (labelled). Ex. Event –\> labelling situation (cognitive) –\> emotion + physiological response. How we label an event is based on cultural/individual differences. * The interpretation of the event leads to arousal and aggression.

Answer 260

**_James-Lange_**: physiological –\> emotion **_Cannon-Bard_**: physiological +emotion **_Schatcher-Singer_**: physiological + cognitive –\> emotion **_Lazarus: cognitive_** –\>emotion +physiological

Answer 261

The limbic system is involved in emotion: the **_amygdala_** is the conductor of emotional experiences, communicating between the **_hypothalamus_** (physiological) and prefronatl cortex (behavioural). The **_amygdala_** plays a hey role in fear and aggression. * Emotions that are associated with memories are stored in the **_hippocampus_**. * The prefrontal cortex is involved in decision making, and reducing emotions. It also has executive functions – higher order processes such as planning/organizing/inhibiting/etc.

Answer 262

People perform best when they are moderately aroused – the **_Yerkes-Dodson Law_**, a bell shaped curve. * The relationship between long term memory and fear follows a **_Yerkes-Dodson_** curve. * This means that extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively. * Moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall.

Answer 263

**_Stress_** is the process by which we appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges. It encompasses both the stressor and the stress reaction.

Answer 264

There is a **_stressor_** (dog) and the **_stress reaction_** (bunny's physical and emotional response). Stress is the process encompassing both.

Answer 265

Stress arises less from actual events and more from our interpretation of events – **_appraisal theory of stress_**. There are two stages to the cognitive stages of stress – the **_primary appraisal_** and the **_secondary appraisal_**. * **_Primary appraisal_** – assessing stress in the present situation. 3 categories of the response to this primary appraisal – irrelevant, benign/positive, stressful. If **_primary appraisal_** is negative, you then move forward with the **_secondary appraisal_** * **Secondary appraisal** – what is material preparedness to deal with the stressor. Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it). Humans can have a stress reaction and also anticipate stressors! Makes the whole process a bit more interesting/complicated.

Answer 266

There are four main categories of stressors. * **_Significant life changes_** – changes in your personal life. Ex. Death of loved one, marriage, loss of job, having children, leaving home, etc.

Answer 267

There are four main categories of stressors. * **_Catastrophic events_** – A large scale event that everyone considers threatening. Ex. wars, natural disasters etc.

Answer 268

There are 4 main categories of stressors. * **_Daily hassles_** – Seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life Ex. long store lines, forgetting car keys, aggravating roommates, email spam, car engine burns out, finding dog poop on your carpet, and tire punctured, expectations not communicated well b/w you and your spouse, inability to let go of an unobtainable goal etc. * **_Daily hassles_** often accompanies low SES- inadequate income or unemployment * For minorities **_Daily hassles_** might include racism. * Many consider (like Mike Lazarus and Connor McDonald) the most important form of stress.

Answer 269

There are 4 main categories of stressors. * **_Ambient stressors_** – Global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Perceivable, but hard to control. Can negatively impact us without us being aware of them. Stuff we just put up with in our lives. Ex. Pollution, noise, crowding

Answer 270

Stressors like threats and dangers trigger our **_fight or flight_** system – the **_sympathetic nervous system_**. * See increased heart rate and respiration (more energy + oxygen), increased peripheral vasoconstriction (push more blood to our core area – harder to live without blood), and turn off digestion/immune/etc. * **Endocrine response** - adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine, and cortisol * **_Tend and befriend_** response -sometimes better response to stress is to have support systems. Oxytocin is important for this – peer bonding. Oxytocin is strongly linked to estrogen, so this is the reason the oxytocin response is stronger in women.

Answer 271

There are three distinct stages of stress – **_General Adaptation Syndrome_** (**_GAS_**), The three phases are by **_Hans Salye_** * The first stage is the **_Alarm phase_** – stress reaction kick in, heart races, resources mobilized –"ready for the fight or flight:

Answer 272

There are three distinct stages of stress – **_General Adaptation Syndrome_** **_(GAS)_**, The three phases are by Hans Salye * The second stage is the **_resistance phase_** – fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, and your body is bathed in cortisol

Answer 273

There are three distinct stages of stress – **_General Adaptation Syndrome_** (**_GAS_**), The three phases are by Hans Salye * The third stage is the **_exhaustion stage_** – if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depeleted, our tissues become damaged, and our dampened immunity can make ussusceptible to illness. It is a negative impact of long term stress. We are equipped to short-term stress. But if we have them daily, but there will be serious negative consequences if they are maintained daily/long term.

Answer 274

There are physical effects from stress. Stress has damaging effects on our **_heart_**. * Increased blood pressure, blood vessels distend, so they build up more muscle and become more rigid. This can lead to **_hypertension_** and **_vascular disease_** (disease of blood vessels – get damaged with higher force of blood movement). Spots attract fat and narrow blood vessels. The worst place to experience this is the coronary arteries –**_coronary artery disease_**.

Answer 275

There are physical effects from stress. During stress, our body secretes cortisol and **_glucagon_**, which converts glycogen to glucose. If stress is psychosocial, we don't need all this extra glucose, which can exacerbate metabolic conditions like diabetes.

Answer 276

There are physical effects from stress. Stress has damaging effects on our reproductive health. * Reproduction is a huge energy expense in women, so this gets shut down during the stress response. Impotence is often caused by stress.

Answer 277

There are physical effects from stress. Stress has damaging effects on our immune function. * Stress causes inflammation – acute stress can lead to overuse of the immune system. You immune cells can attack your own body.

Answer 278

The sturcture of the nervous system is divided into two general categories: the **_Central Nervous System_** and the **_Peripheral Nervous System_**. * The **_Central Nervous System_** equals the brain and spinal cord * The brain includes the cerebrum, cerebral hemispheres, brain stem (midbrain, pons, and medulla), and cerebellum. * The brain in development can be divided in to three general categories: the **_forebrain_**, **_midbrain_**, and **_hindbrain_**. * The **_forebrain_** becomes the cerebrum. * The **_hindbrain_** becomes the pons/medulla/cerebellum * The **_midbrain_** becomes the midbrain.

Answer 279

The sturcture of the nervous system is divided into two general categories: the **_Central Nervous System_** and the **_Peripheral Nervous System_**. * The **_Peripheral Nervous System_** = everything else. Cranial (12 pairs) + spinal nerves (31 pairs) * Nerves, ganglia. Afferent and efferent neurons

Answer 280

There are two main and general functions of the nervous system: **_Basic_** and **_Higher Order Functions_**. * The **_basic_** functions of the nervous system include **_motor_** (control of the skeletal muscle), **_sensory_** (the senses), **_automatic_** (reflexes) * The **_higher order functions_** of the nervous system include **_congnition_** (thinking), **_emotions_** (feelings), and **_consciousness_**.

Answer 281

**_Lower motor neurons_** – efferent neurons of the PNS, controls skeletal muscle. skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit. The muscle and axon terminals form a **_neuromuscular junction_**.

Answer 282

* Abnormalities can occur in the motor unit – weakness. * Abnormalities of the lower motor neurons can cause the **_lower motor neuron signs_** (**_LMN signs_**) which can happen in addition to weakness. * **_LMN signs_** include **_atrophy_** of the skeletal muscle, **_fasciculations_** (involuntary twitches of the skeletal muscle), **_hypotonia_** (decrease in tone of the skeletal muscle – how much muscle is contracted when a person is relaxed), **_hyporeflexia_** (decreased muscle stretch reflex).

Answer 283

For peripheral somatosensation, somatosensation includes 5 main ones - position sense, vibration, touch, pain, and temperature. * Position + vibration + touch = **_mechanoreceptors_**, pain = **_nociceptors_**, temperature = **_thermoreceptors_** * One of the differences between the two types is how big their axons are – **_position/vibration/touch_** receptors have large diameter axons. They have a thick myelin sheath. Fast transduction travelling * The rest have small diameter axons and less myelin, so the signal transduction travels much slower. * **_Touch_** is both. Fine touch travels in fast neurons, less precise info travels in slower neurons

Answer 284

There are many receptors found in the skin. Ex. Mechanoreceptors, one type close to the skin, another type lower. Also some in deep tisse, deep in muscle that detects stretch. Ones in **_muscle_** are important for position, and ones in **_skin_** are important for vibration/touch. * **_Pain and temperature receptors_** end in uncovered terminals, don't have big structures like mechanoreceptors. Receptors send info down **_afferent_** axons.

Answer 285

The muscle stretch reflex topic. * Reflexes have 2 parts – **_afferent_** (stimulus) and **_efferent_** (response)

Answer 286

The **_muscle stretch reflex_** causes a muscle to contract after it's stretched, as a protesctive response. Ex. Knee jerk response – involuntary response of leg kicking out. The hammer hits the tendon right below the knee cap, which hooks onto the loower leg bone on one end, and a large group of upper muscles on the other. Muscles are called **_muscle spindles_**. * **_Somatosensory neurons_** (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synapse in the spinal cord with another neuron in th espinal cord, which sends the axon out back to the same muscle that was stretched, and excite skeletal muscle cells to contract – **_lower motor neurons_** (efferent) * The muscle on the underside of the leg is inhibited when the top side of the leg is excited. This is necessary for the reflex to occur.

Answer 287

* **_Gray matter_** contains most of the neuron somas. * **_White matter_** contains myelinated axons * In the spinal cord, **_grey matter_** is on the inside and **_white matter_** is on the ourside * For the brain, **_white matter_** is on the inside and **_grey matter_** is on the outside. Axons also go down tracts of **_white matter_**.

Answer 288

* **_Lower Motor Neurons_** (**_LMN_**) control the muscles of the lower limbs and trunk, while **_LMNs_** that pass through cranial nerves control muscles of the head and neck * **_Upper Motor Neurons (UMN)_** control the **_LMNs_**. **_Upper Motor Neurons_** are found in the cerebral cortex, and synapse on the **_LMNs_** in the brainstem or spinal cord. * Can divide them into tracts depending on if they go to the brainstem, or spinal cord. * **_UMN_** starts in the cerebral cortex, axon travels down through the brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down the other side until they reach the **_LMN_**. This collection of axons is called the ***_corticospinal tract_***. * If it goes to the brainstem, it is called the ***_corticobulbar tract_***.

Answer 289

Signs that your **_Upper Motor Neurons_** (**_UMN_**) are damaged: * **_Hyperreflexia_** – increase in the muscle stretch refleses. The cause is unclear, but when the muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic stimulation of the LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get a bigger reflex. * **_Clonus_** – rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. Ex. foot goes involuntarily up and down. Cause is hyperflexia, because if your doctor pullson foot, it activates the muscle stretch reflex, so it triggers the antagonist muscles. * **_Hypertonia_** – increased tone of skeletal muscles. * **_Extensor Plantar Response_** – if you take a hard object and scrape along the bottom of a foot, the normal response is a flexor response – meaning toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up. (I am not sure if this is a sign of UMN damage....)

Answer 290

* Somatosensory tracts. Somatosensory information travels in different pathways. In general, there are two big categories: 1. position sense, vibration sense, and fine touch and 2. pain, temperature, gross touch * Somatosensory tracts deliver information to the spinal cord. * The spinal cord carries information to the brain in one of the tracts. Crosses other side immediately, then goes to the cerebrum * Why injury to one side of the brain often results in damage to the other side

Answer 291

**_Frontal Lobe_** – motor cortex (body movements), prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/ direct other areas of the brain), Broca's area (speech production)

Answer 292

**_Parietal lobe_** – somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orient in 3D) * Somatosensory cortex: motor cortex (frontal) + somatosensory cortex (parietal). Somatosensory cortex - involved in receiving sensory signlas from the skin.

Answer 293

**_Occipital Lobe_** – vision, "striate cortex" (striated cells)

Answer 294

**_Temporal Cortex_** – sound, Wernicke's area

Answer 295

These are the functions of the **_cerebellum_**: * The **_cerebellum_** coordinates movement: ***_motor plan_*** information is sent to the cerebellum. The **_cerebellum_** also recieves ***_position sense_*** information (ex. muscle stretch fibers), and sends feedback to the **_cerebellum_** and motor areas of the motor cortex. * The middle of the **_cerebellum_** coordinates middle body movement and walking, while the sides are involved in movements of the limbs – arms and legs. Also speech and movement of the eyes

Answer 296

* The **_brainstem_** connects all parts of the brain together, including the cranial nerves. * The **_brainstem_** is comprised of the midbrain, pons, and medulla. * **_Long Tracts_** – collections of axons connecting the cerebrum and **_brainstem_**. There are two long tracts that are important: **_motor_** (UMNs), and **_somatatosensory_**. * **_Cranial nerves_** – most of the cranial nerves are attached to the **_brainstem_**, doing many thing. 12 pairs. All sorts of functions.

Answer 297

There are neuron somas scattered throughout **_brainstem_** is the **_reticular formation_** – big role in autonomic functions, and controlling things like respiration, digestion, and lower/higher functions.

Answer 298

There are specific and important parts of the subcortical cerebrum. * There are subcortical cerebral nuclei that are located deep in the subcortical cerebrum * **_Internal capsule_** (part of the subcortical cerebrum) – contains many important pathways, including the corticospinal tract * The **_corpus callosum_** (part of the subcortical cerebrum) – connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

Answer 299

**_Basal ganglia_** (part of the subcortical cerebrum)– major role in motor functions, don't have UMNs but help motor area to perform proper movements. Also cognition + emotion.

Answer 300

**_Thalamus_** (part of the subcortical cerebrum)– Sensory functions, becuase all senses have pathways that travel to the **_thalamus_**. Also higher functions of the brain such as cognition and emotion.

Answer 301

**_Hypothalamus_** – controls the pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glands in the body.

Answer 302

**_Glutamate_** – most common excitatory neurotransmitter. **_Reticular activating system_** (required for consciousness – midbrain structures) has diffuse projections of glutamate to the cerebral cortex. (GLU is exciting) * **_Glutamate_** is associated with increased cortical arousal.

Answer 303

**_GABA_** (brain neurotransmitter) and **_Glycine_** (spinal cord) – most common inhibitory NTs [TWO other G's are inhibitory]

Answer 304

**_Acetylcholine_** (neurotransmitter) – nuclei (Basilis and septal nuclei) in the frontal lobe [**_frontal lobe = start so A_**] that releases it to cerebral cortex, released for LMNs, and the autonomic nervous system.

Answer 305

**_Histamine_** (neurotransmitter) – from hypothalamus sends to the cerebral cortex

Answer 306

**_NorePinephrine_** – area in the Pons called teh **_locus coeruleus_** that releases it to the cerebral cortex. Also, ANS, but less so than Ach.

Answer 307

**_Serotonin_** – released by lots of nuclei from all over the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) called raphe nuclei to cerebral cortex release **_serotonin_**. The raphe nuclei also sends **_serotonin_** to other parts of the nervous system. [Like Sex = messy. From everywhere down low (brain stem)]

Answer 308

**_Dopamine_** – VTA and substantia nigra

Answer 309

Lesion studies and experimental ablation is deliberately making brain lesions in order to observe changes on animal's behavior. Not done with humans! * Tissue removal: surgical removal, surgical aspiration (sucking out brain tissue), or nerve cuts.

Answer 310

Radiofrequency lesions – used to destroy tissue on surface of the brain and deep inside the brain. A wire is inserted into the brain to determine the area. Then pass a high frequency current which heats up and destroys tissue. It can vary current to change size, but destroys cells and axons.

Answer 311

**_Neurochemical lesions_** – excitotoxic lesions, cause influx of calcium that it kills the neuron and excites it to death. * One example is **_kainic acid_**. Destroys cell bodies but doesn't influence axons by passing by. * Also **_oxidopamine_** (**_6-hydroxydopamine_**) selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons. Can model parkinson's disease.

Answer 312

**_Cortical cooling_** (**_Cryogenic blockade_**) - involves cooling down neurons until they stop friing. * **_Cryloop_** – surgically implanted between skull and brain. Most important part is it's temporary and reversible, unlike other brain studying techniques.

Answer 313

There are modern ways to study the brain. The modern ways or machines that are used to study the brain *structure* is * **_CAT scans (CT scan)_** * **_MRI_**

Answer 314

here are modern ways to study the brain. The modern ways or machines that are used to study the brain *function* is * **_EEG_** (**_electroencephalogram_**) external, can't tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons. Can only look at sum total. Can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cogntive tasks. * **_MEG_** (**_Megnetoencephalogram_**) (aka SQUIDS - Superconducting quantum interference device) – better resolution than an EEG, but more rare because it requires a large machine and special room to shield it.

Answer 315

There are modern ways to study the brain. The modern ways or machines that are used to study the brain *function* AND *structure* is * **_fMRI_** – same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active * **_PET scans_** – can't give us the detail of the structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of the brain are more active at given point in time.

Answer 316

**_Phenylketonuria (PKU)_** is an inborn error of metabolism that results in decreased metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine.[3] Untreated, **_PKU_** can lead to intellectual disability, seizures, behavioral problems, and mental disorders.[1] It may also result in a musty smell and lighter skin.[1] A baby born to a mother who has poorly treated **_PKU_** may have heart problems, a small head, and low birth weight.[1]

Answer 317

**_Between-subjects_** (or **_between-groups_**) study design: different people test each condition, so that each person is only exposed to a single user interface.

Answer 318

**_Within-subjects_** (or **_repeated-measures_**) study design: the same person tests all the conditions (i.e., all the user interfaces).

Answer 319

**_Temperament_** – broader than personality. It’s their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. **_Temperament_** seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. **Persistent** as person ages.

Answer 320

**_Heredity_** – passing traits from parents/ancestors to offspring through genes. * **_Traits_**: distinguishing qualities and characteristics that compus us. Our attributes. Ex. Our temperament or our eye color.

Answer 321

**_Personality_**, unlike psychological characteristics/abnormalities is believed to be **constant** over a person's lifetime. * Is our personality hard-wired and persistent as we age? What about our gender identity? or intelligence?

Answer 322

**_Twin studies_** and **_adoption studies_** are important in behavioral, social, and health sciences. * **_Twin studies_** and **_adoption studies_** are good because they allow us to tease apart nature (what we inherit from our parents, DNA) and nurture (our environments – our surroundings, peers, and where we live)

Answer 323

* _Classical twin study_ – compare monozygotic + dizygotic raised in the same household. * Monozygotic (edentical) vs. dizygotic twins (fraternal) * Monozygotic – egg splits into 2 after fertilization. Share 100% of the genes * Dizygotic – develop from 2 separately fertilized eggs. Share 50% of genes, like regular siblings * Share same environment in womb, and also share the same parents, so both can be said to share 100% environment * Regular sibling don't share 100%, similar, but can vary depending on parenting/age.

Answer 324

Twin studies and adoption studies allow us to tease apart **_nature_** (what we inherit from our parents' DNA) and **_nurture_** (our environments – our surroundings, peers, and where we live) * For example, what causes schizophrenia? * Nature – genetic component * Nurture – environmental component * Monozygotic twins vs. dizygotic twins – can hold environment constant. * If schizophrenia was caused by genes, we would expect to see different rates in identical vs fraternal twins. Higher in identical twins * But if **_environmental_**, similar rates of disorder in both sets of twins. Wouldn't matter if they were identical vs fraternal.

Answer 325

**_Problems with twin studies_**: identical twins are treated more similarly than fraternal twins are. This would mean that monozygotic twins share even "more" of the same environement than fraternal twins.

Answer 326

**_Adoption studies_** – adopted child is compared to biological family and their adopted family. If no relation between individual and biological parents, but there is relation between individual and adoptive parents, then we can assume environment was a factor. If opposite, then genetic factor. * Problems: incomplete info about biological families. Also adoption isn't random, adoptive family sometimes matched to biological family. Identical twins adopted by different family – genetically similar, different environments. But families who adopt are usually similar.

Answer 327

**_Heritability_**: variability of traits can be attributed to differences in genes. * percentage of variation of traits due to genes. * **_Heritability_** estimates define the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes in specific subgroups of individuals

Answer 328

Assume we say heritability of intelligence is 50%. NOT saying that intelligence is 50% genetic, saying the **_difference_** in intelligence is 50% attributable by genes. * For example, control boys environment 100%, but IQ is not the same. Difference couldn't be attributed to environment, so we'd say their IQ differences are heritable because their environement was 100% the same. So h^2 = 99%. Close to 100%. * Alternatively you can say 4 identical quadruplets (genetically identical), but completely different environments. Since variability can't be due to genes, it must be environmentally caused so h^2 is 0%. h^2 = heritability

Answer 329

Gener Environment Interaction * Nature vs. Nurture. * **_Gene-Environment Interaction_**: Gene + environments effect our behavior, and the role of genes + environments on behavior is dependent on each other. [Explains nature through nurture] * For example, an attractive baby vs. a hideous baby. As a result, the attractive baby recieves more attention and is more sociable and well adjusted. But say both have genes that predispose them for depression, that are triggered/activated by environement (stressors). Beautiful baby's genes are not activated because it has reduced transmitters, while the ugly baby's genes are making proteins all the time since his life is tougher. Both DNA/genes play a role in genetic disposition but also environment plays a role.

Answer 330

Another example of gene environment interaction is **_phenylketonuria_** (**_PKU_**). **_Phenylketonuria_** is caused by mutations to a gene that encodes a liver enzyme phenlylalanine hydroxylase (PAH). But becuase the enzyme is missing, amino acid phenylalanine doesn't get converted into tyrosine. A genetic condition that causes a build up of phenyl alanine which then causes brain problems. (1 in 15k babies effected, but most babies are unaffected). * During infant screening, placed on phenylalanine-free diet, and most grow up without major problems.

Answer 331

**_Molecular Genetics_** – a new field of science that looks at the molecular structure and fucntin of genes. As we study gene and environemtns interaction we are getting to understand specific gene that is regulating our behavior. We are looking at specific parts of DNA.

Answer 332

Watson and Crick discovered the structure of DNA, and gave rise to the **_Central Dogma_** of genetic. DNA codes for RNA, which code for 1 of 20 amino acids, and eventually become the building blocks of proteins, which affects our behavior.

Answer 333

Greatest achievements in clarifying the modulatory factors we have had mapped our entire genome - **_gene mapping_** of all genes on the 46 chromosomes. Because of genome now we can look at populations which share traits and not have to rely on twin/adoption studies to narrow down heritability of traits. Now, we can look at population of shared traits and look at genes that code for those traits and compare/contrast those genes.

Answer 334

Called **_epigenetics_** – changes to gene expression resulting from changes other than to gene/ DNA sequence. Ex. Addition of methyl groups to the gene, which make it more difficult for TFs to come in and activate a gene. [Methylation inhibits activation of certain genes.]. **_Epigenetics_** can override our behavior. * **_Epigenetics_** is the study of changes in gene expression that results in something other than changes to a DNA sequence. One **_epigenetic_** change is methylation, which can make it more difficult for a gene to be expressed.

Answer 335

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. * **_Function of Behavior_** – to keep **_homeostasis_** - a maintained of a constant interanl condition. Behavior is the coordinated internal and external response of an organism/groups of organisms to their environment. Functioning in the realm of **_adaptation_** to help maintain our homeostasis.

Answer 336

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. * **_Ethology_** focuses on the observation of animal behaviours, call these overt behaviours (not necessarily obvious, just means observable). * I believe **_Ethology_** can be divided into *innate behavior*, *learned behaviour*, and *complex behaviours*.

Answer 337

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under under Ethology is **_innate behavioruoural traits_**. * **_Innate behavioural traits_** – genetically programmed behaviour. Present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. Innate behavioural traits have the following characteristics: * **_Inherited_** – innate behaviours are encoded by DNA * **_Intrinsic_** – present even if you're raised in isolation. Ex. pooping, peeing, etc. * **_Stereotypic_** – performed the same way each time * **_Inflexible_** – not modifiable by experience. * **_Consummate_** – fully developed right away, at first perfromance. Not influenced by experience. * Subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection, etc (just like all other physical traits) * Ex. Nausea in women during pregnancy helps them avoid toxic foods/novel-strongly flavored food in critical period of development. Throught of as programmed.

Answer 338

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under under Ethology is innate behavioruoural traits. Even further, there are three main types of innate behaviour: * **_Reflexes_** – sensory and motor nerve loop response w/o thinking. (ex. Knee-jerk response). * **_Orientation Behaviors_** – regualting specially in our environments * Ex. Kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis), change in rate in turning (klinokinesis). Can be in response to a stimulus (like tripping on a sidewalk – your body would change speed/kinesis). * Ex. Positive taxis and Negative taxis - movement towards/away from a stimulus respectively. E. Insects and light. Insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis) * **_Fixed-action pattern (FAP)_** – sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. Similar to a reflex, but more complicated. Ex. Praying mantis. Any prey-sixed movement praying mantis experiences elicits a strike response, once strike is initiated – can't be changed/altered at all.

Answer 339

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under Ethology is **_Learned Behaviooural Traits_** – persistent changes in behavior that result from ur experiences. **_Learned Behavioral Traits_** have these following characteristics: * **_Non-inherited_** –acquired only through observation/experience * **_Extrinsic_** – absent when animals are raised in isolation, ex. social skills * **_Permutable_** – pattern/sequence that is changeable * **_Adaptable_** – capable of being modifid in response to changing conditions * **_Progressive_** – subject to improvement or refined through practice over time

Answer 340

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under Ethology is **_complex behavior_** – combination of innate and learned behavior. Relationship between genes and the environment in adaptation. Can be a spectrum, most behaviours fit between innate and learned. * Ex. ability of insects to fly, starts off as innate but through learning become more fficient in their ability to fly. Genes/environments forms behavior and they also contribute to the adaptive role of these behaviors! **_Covert behavior_** - Covert behavior is behavior that is not observable.

Answer 341

**_Positive Feedback_** – process that increase production of product. One product stimulates production of another product. Ex. Domino or chain effect

Answer 342

**_Negative feedback_**– rate or process that needs to be controlled to decrease product. Ex. in our body! * **_Negative feedback_** is put into place to inhibit production of product

Answer 343

* **_Positive_**, increase production of product. * **Negative**, works to decrease product.

Answer 344

Complex human experiences involve *motivation*. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is the **_Evolutionary Approach_** – role instincts play in motivation. What do humans do to survive? What is not learned and just instinct. * Ex. Think about baby. The baby cries, sleeps, and eats. Basic instinct that all humans have

Answer 345

Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is **_Drive Reduction Theory_** / Drive Theory – focuses on **_drives_** vs **_needs_**. * **_Need_** is the lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state. * That **_drive_** is the aroused state. Fulfulling the drive will reduce the need. This **_need-drive_** balance is what maintains homeostasis. Typically basic, essential, and physiological * Ex. You are at the gym and the need for water. Trainer says you need to do more exercise. In this example, **_need_**: water, **_drive_**:thirst. Doing pushups is a means to fulfull **_drive_** for water.

Answer 346

Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is **_Optimum Arousal Theory_** – people want to reach full arousal/alertness. Drive to get full arousal, and natural high – a state we enjoy. Ex. Why people go to amusement parks.

Answer 347

Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is **_Cognitive_** – (rational and decision making ability) - thought processes drive behavior. Ex. Light bulb going off in one's head.

Answer 348

Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is **_Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs_** – we want to satisfy needs in a particular order. Why we use a pyramid. * In reality, all approaches/schools of thought of motivation are related and help us learn motivation a bit better.

Answer 349

**_Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs_** - A pyramid. We have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top. These needs must be fulfilled in a specific bottomàtop order. * Basic needs are most fundamental and at bottom. o There are 5 needs. * Acronyms: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit * Please Safely Love (OR) Else Suffer

Answer 350

One of the five Need categories in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: **_1.Physiological_**. **_1.Physiological_** – food, water, breathing, sleep. Essential to survive. Basic need

Answer 351

One of the five Need categories in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: **_2. Safety_**. **_2.Safety_** – **_safety_** of employment, health, resources, property. Can only be fulfulled after physiological needs are met. Basic Need * **_Safety_** needs are associated with stability, security, protection, and freedom from threats.

Answer 352

One of the five Need categories in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: **_3. Love_**. **_3.Love_** – need to belong, acceptance from friends/family intimacy, **_love_**. *Social* *needs*/*Belonging*

Answer 353

One of the five Need categories in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: **_4. Self-esteem_**. **_4. Self-esteem_** – feel confident and a sense of achievement, recognition, and competence of skill. *Respect*

Answer 354

One of the five Need categories in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: **_5. Self-actualization_**. **_5. Self-actualization_** – one reaching their maximal potential, achieving the most one can be. They were moral to their own principles and mastered the other needs. Differs from person to person. Different from person to person. Maximum Potential * One can want to be an ideal parent, or ideal athlete or ideal artist

Answer 355

**_Incentive Theory_** – Reward, intangible or tangible is presented after the occurrence of an action w/intention of causing the behavior to occur again. This causes a positive association and meaning toward a behavior. Focuses on conditioning/incentive to make a person happier. **_Incentive theory_** argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives * Ex. doing well at work and getting promotion (tangible). Or intangible - job satisfaction. * Ex. **_Incentive_** for football team is winning a game and getting recognition.

Answer 356

**_Incentive Theory_** Topic * Studies have shown that if a reward is given immediately, the chance of the action happening again is higher. * If the person is not rewarded for the action, the action is less likely to be done again. * **_Positive Reinforcement_** is done through continous positive stimulation * Removal of a punishment would be **_negative reinforcement_**, not what **_incentive theory_** is focused on. * Skinner, the most distinguished **_incentive theory_** psychologist, said a person is more likely to do an action that's positively recieved, and less likely to do an action that is negatively recieved

Answer 357

Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs * There are many factors that regulate our intake of food, sex, and drugs * Furthermore, these factors can be grouped into 2 categories: **_biological_** and **_socio-culture_**

Answer 358

Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs * Food * **_Biological_**: Hypothalamus sends positive signal to the stomach, and when the stomach is full, leptin tells us we are full. Another one is insulin. The brain can detect the level of insulin to see the amount of sugar and fat store in the blood. Matabolism rate. Genetic predspostion to our weight, influenced by parents * **_Socio-culturally_**: Eat for different occasions, time, desire, appeal, and availability

Answer 359

Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs * Sex – Investigated by MAster & Johnson. * **_Biological_**: Sexual response cycle. The first part of the cycle is the excitement phase, marked by increased heart rate, BP, etc. Second is plateau. Then orgasm. 4th is resolution. They noticed activity was related to testosterone for women and men. Also have genetic predisposition to sexuality, found by looking at homosexuality. * **_Socio-culturally_**: age, cultural, stimulus, emotions, and desires to procreate or not.

Answer 360

Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs * Drugs * **_Biological_**: family history/genetic predisposition, withdrawal and cravings, biochemical factors, dopamine – affects our limboc system and leads to feeling of euphoria * **_Socio-culturally_**: curiosity, rebel, poor control, cope with stress, low self-esteem, relief from fatigue, feel good, and more prevalent in area of higher poverty.

Answer 361

**_Attitude_** – a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, and objects. (We think of **_attitude_** as a moody teenager, or someone having a certain **_attitude_** towards a certain topic.

Answer 362

There are three components to attitude – **_affective_** (emotional), behavioural (how we act or behave towards object/subject), cognitive component (form thoughts/beliefs, and our knowledge) * Called the ABC model of attitude

Answer 363

Identify the Affective, Behavioural, and Cognitive compenents of these attitudes! * “I love yoga because I get to mediate and I believe it helps me relax so I will go to class each week.” – **_‘I love yoga’ is emotional,’ I believe it helps me relax’ is cognitive, and behavioural is ‘I will go to class each week’_** * “I am frightful of rollercoasters and believe they are stupid so I will be on the carousel.” **_Affective – ‘I am frightful’, behavioural is ‘I will be on the carousel’, and cognitive is ‘I believe they are stupid’_**

Answer 364

Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are _four_ theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior. * 1. **_Theory of Planned Behavior_** * We consider the **_implications_** of our **_intentions_** before we behave. * Intesions are based on 3 things – our **_attitudes_** toward a certain behavior (ex. I like studying), **_subjective norms_** (what we think others think about our behavior), and **_percieved behavioural control_** (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior)

Answer 365

Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are _four_ theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior. * 2. **_Attitude to Behavior Process Model_** * An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object) * Then attitude + outside knowledge together determines behavior * Ex. Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, becuase many of his relatives have diseases, so when he is at home, he does not eat chips/soda/candy.

Answer 366

Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are four theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior. * 3. **_Prototype Willingness Model_** (**_PWM_**) * Behavior is a function of 6 things: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior, **_prototypes_**/**_models_** – a lot of our behavior is carried out from **_prototyping_**/**_modeling_**.

Answer 367

Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are _four_ theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior. * 4. **_Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion_** * More cognitive approach – focuses on the why/how of persuasion. * There are two ways information is processed: **_central_** (depends on the quality of arguments of the persuader), and **_peripheral_** (superficial/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/satus of persuader). * People are more like to be honest when social influences are reduced (ex. secret ballot), when general patterns of behavior are observed versus a single one (**_principle of aggregation_**), when specific actions are considered, and when attitudes are made more powerful through self reflection. * The **_principle of aggregation_** states that the sum of a set of multiple measurements is a more stable and representative estimator than any single measurement. This greater representation occurs because there is inevitably some error associated with measurement. By combining numerous exemplars, such errors of measurement are averaged out, leaving a clearer view of underlying relationships. The usefulness of this principle is illustrated in 12 major areas of developmental research in which the issue of negligible correlations figures prominently.

Answer 368

**YES**, it is possible for our behaviors to influence our attitudes?

Answer 369

Strong social attitudes can cause our attitudes to follow our behavior.

Answer 370

There are two primary or major ways behavior influences attitude. However, there are other major ways behavior influences your attitude. * 1. **_Foot In The Door Phenomenon_** * We have a tendency to agree on small actions first. Eventually over time comply with much larger actions. * Basic concept of how people are brainwashed too. Door is eventually pushed completely open.

Answer 371

There are two primary or major ways behavior influences attitude. However, there are other major ways behavior influences your attitude. * **_Role-playing_** * Everyone plays roles in life. Picture yourself in a new role. First few day are a bit fake – we're trying to follow social quota in that role. Trying to sound professional. But over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you. * Changed attitude as a result of our behavior and carrying out that role. * Ex. Zimbardo's prison experiment

Answer 372

There are two primary or major ways behavior influences attitude. However, there are other major ways behavior influences your attitude. * Also **_public declarations_** (more likely to follow through if you've told everyone), and **_justification of effort_** (people do something they don't want to justify effort they put into it, such as going to med school after working so hard)

Answer 373

**_Cognitive Dissonance_** is the discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, and emotional reactions). * These conflicting ideas lead to feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate. These conflicting ideas can be alleviated by alterations in our beliefs/behaviours. We want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/inconsistencies/ CONTRADICTIONS

Answer 374

There are 4 things we do to reduce our cognitive discomfort or cognitive dissonance: * 1. **_Modify our cognitions_** – ex. smoker might ay I really don't smoke that much. * 2. **_Trivialize_** – make less important, ex. evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer. * 3. **_Add_** – adding more cognitions, ex. I exercise so much that it doean't matter * 4. **_Deny_** – denying the facts, ex. smoking and cancer are not linked. People strive for harmony in our thoughts, actions, words. As soon as our cognitions, attitudes and behaviours don't align, we have cognitive dissonance.

Answer 375

**_Situational Approach to Behavior_**: we are placed in new situations everyday. These situations affect our behavior. Under the branch of social psychology. * **_Social Psychology_** – a branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence. It focuses on interaction between individual and the changing external environmental (situational) circumstances over internal traits/internal motivations/ stable personality traits. * Focuses on interactions between individual and their environment. * One situation is not predictive of how someone will act in another situation. Depending on situation the behavior might change.

Answer 376

Situational Approach * People behave differently depending on their situation – _________ instead of internal. * As human we judge person on just one instance of behavior (internal). * Hard to predict behavior based off 1 situation. Have to acknowledge we sometimes behave differently. CANT JUDGE A BOOK BY ITS COVER

Answer 377

Situational Approach **_Attribution_** is the process of inferring *causes of events/behaviors*. * 3 main parts of external attribution: **_consistency_**, **_distinctiveness_**, and **_consensus_** * **_Consistency_** (does person usually behave this way), * **_Distinctiveness_** (does person behave differently in different situations), and * **_Consensus_** (do others behave similarly in situation?). * If person behaves different in different situations (**_distinctive_**) and others behave similarly in the same situation (**_consensus_**) then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external). Situation is effecting behavior. * If person is **_consistent_** in all situations, then maybe not external/environment, and more internal. Their behavior is not dependent on situation. * Ex. Situation matters. Your friend behaves differently to snakes at a zoo (where snakes are caged) than to a snake in her living room (where snake might be a danger). * If we see someone in more circumstances, we find out more about them as a person.

Answer 378

**_Sigmund Freud_** was a neurologist and went to study hypnosis, but this turned him to medical psychopathology. Psychiatry/psychology as we knew it was unknown before his work.

Answer 379

**_Psychoanalytic Theory_** says peronality is shaped by a person's *unconscious thoughts/desires*, feelings, and past memories (particularly in childhood) * Personality has memories, beliefs, urges, drives, and instincts that we are not always aware of that make up the unconscious. Says childhood experiences and unconscious desires * 2 instinctual drives motivate human behavior: **_libido_** (motivation for survival. growth, pleasure, etc.) and **_death instinct_** (drives aggresive behaviours fuelled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others.

Answer 380

Psychoanalytic Theory * Individual influences on behavior: **_projection_** (projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another), **_reaction formation_** (defence mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel), **_regression_** (defence mechnism where one regresses to the position of child in problematic situations), **_sublimation_** (defence mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful).

Answer 381

Psychoanalytic Theory * Central to Freud's Theory is **_libido_**. **_Libido_** is the natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind. * When this energy is stuck/fixated at various tages of psychosexual development, conflicts can occur that have lifelong effects. * **_Fixation_** at a partcular stage is what predicts adult personality. * Ex. Someone **_fixated_** at the oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics, such as smoking habits/overly talkative when they grow up.

Answer 382

Freud said there were 3 parts of the mind: These three parts are the **_id_**, **_ego_**, and **_superego_** (ACRONYM: Immature Entertainer Sydney). They exist in either the unconscious or conscious mind. * Conscious mind: top of iceberg is the conscious part of mind (small, tip of the iceberg), These are the mental functions you are aware of. * Unconscious mind is the bottom part of the iceberg is the larger part of the mind (most of the mind is unconscious just like most of an iceberg is beneath water). Consists of primitive, instinctual wishes and information that cannot be accessed. * **_Id_** is at the bottom of the iceberg; it's part of the unconscious mind. It develps after birth and demands immediate gratification. * **_Ego_** – part of conscious and unconscious. Involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgements, and seeks long-term gratification. * **_Superego_** – develps around age 4, and it's our moral conscience. Also part of the conscious and unconscious mind.

Answer 383

Our libido impulses are what want to be gratified – when overgratified or partially/not gratified at all, fixation occurs at a certain stage. Face conflict/anxiety. It’s a conflict between these 3 mental structures – ego, id, and superego. They’re all competing for demand, so in conflict. * Id is on one shoulder and it’s not getting immediate gratification, then we have superego on other shoulder, preaching to id about what’s moral, and ego is in middle. * Id wants gratification, and is going back and forth with superego, so ego here is trying to gratify the id but it also has to take into account what the superego is saying. It’s moral oversight. * The ego is part of the conscious and unconscious mind, so it acts as mediator between the unconscious desires of the id and the moral demands of the superego.

Answer 384

* Ex. a **_Freudian slip_** is example of mental conflict. Ex. financially stressed patient, please don’t give me any bills – meant any pills. • Freud’s stages of psychosocial development is a process all individuals go through and is a part of personality development. Especially problematic when there’s a problem with development at a particular psychosocial stage.

Answer 385

The **_Humanistic Theory_** (developed by **_Carl Rogers_**) focuses on healthy personality development, and humans are seen as inherently good. The most basic motive of all people is the **_actualizing tendency_** (self-actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential. It also says that people also have **_free will_**. Person will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles.

Answer 386

The primary difference between Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory and Roger's Humanistic Theory was that Freud's Theory was deterministic – behaviour was determined by unconscious desires.

Answer 387

Humanistic Theory focuses on the **_conscious_**, and says people are **_inherently good_**, and we are **_self-motivated to improve_** (so we can reach self-actualization).

Answer 388

Even though Carl Rogers Developed the Humanistic Theory, the first theorist of this theory was **_Maslow_**, who formed the hierarchy of needs. He stated that we must fulfill the physiological needs of the pyramid and work our way up, then safety, then love, self-esttem, and finally self-actualization. * Self-actualization is rarely achieved, only 1% of people ver reach it.

Answer 389

**_Carl Rogers_** says qualities Maslow described are nurtured early in life. Self- actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth-promoting process. In order for this climate to help someone reach self-actualization, 2 conditions need to be met. The first is that growth is nurtured by when an individual is **_genuine_**, one has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. Second growth is nurtured through **_acceptance_** from others – allows us to live up to our ideal selves. * In the Humanistic Theory, the central feature of our personality is **_self-concept_**, achieved when we bring genuiness and acceptance together to achieve a growth-promoting climate. * When there's a discrepency between conscious values and unconscoius true values leads to tension, must be resolved. * **_Genuine_** + **_acceptance_** = **_self-concept_** * Importance of **_congruency_** between **_self-concept_** and our actions to be fulfilled.

Answer 390

There is a Biological Theory on Personality. * There are many variations to this theory, some relate to the **_brain_** and some relate to **_behaviour_** instead of traits * For example, evolutionary psychology theorizes that males + females have a different mating strategy that influence the cost of passing on genes. Males seek to have many mates, and females want to be more selective due to the cost pf pregnancy.

Answer 391

* The biological theory suggests important components of personality are **_inherited_**, or determined in part by our **_genes_**. * **_Hans Eysnck_** proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation – introverts are more easily aroused and therefore require less. **_Jeffrey Alan Gray_** proposed personality is governed by 3 brain systems, such as the fight or flight system. **_C. Robert Cloninger_** linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity.

Answer 392

In the Biological Theory For Personality, researchers always try to look to identical twins, because they are used to tease out environment vs genetic characteristics – same genetic makeup. * Results show even if twins reared separately, still had similar personalities. * **_Social Potency_** trait – the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately. * **_Traditionalism_** – tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins. * Weaker genetic traits – achievement, closeness * Specific genes that relate to personality, people with longer **_dopamine-4-receptor_** gene are more likely to be thrill seekers * But of course, just because you have a gene doesn't mean you'll express it – depends on the environement. * **_Temperament_** – innate disposition, our mood/activity level, and is consistent throughout your life. The most important takeaway on the Biological Theory of Personality is our inherited gene to some degree leads to our traits, which leads to our behaviour/personality.

Answer 393

The **_behaviourist theory_** says personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environement – it's **_deterministic_**, in that people begin as blank slates and the enviornment completely determines their behaviour/personalities.

Answer 394

The Behaviourist Theory on Personality focuses on **_observable_** and measurable behaviour, rather than mental/emotional behaviours. * The Psychoanalytic Theory would be the most opposite of this theory (focuses on mental behaviour).

Answer 395

The Behaviourist Theory on Personality * 1. **_Skinner_** – strict behaviourist, associated with the conceptof **_operant conditioning_**. Uses rewards/punishment to increase/decrease behaviour, respectively * 2. **_Pavlov_** – associated with classical conditioning, ex. **_Pavlov_** dog experiment. Places a neutral stimulus with an **_unconditioned_** stimulus to trigger an involuntary response. Ex. ringing a bell in the presence of food. * People have consistent behaviour patterns becuase we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan.

Answer 396

The **_Cognitive Theory_**, a bridge between classic behaviourism and other theories like the psychoanalyitc. Because cognitive theory treats thinking as a behaviour, and has a lot in common with behaviour theory (Albert Bandura comb)

Answer 397

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. Trait Theory states a **_personality_** trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behaviour. Trait Theory is a striaghtforward way to describe personality – puts it in **_patterns of behaviour_**.

Answer 398

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * **_Surface traits_** are evident from a person's behavior, while **_source traits_** are factors underlying human personality (fewer and more abstract). * What is a trait? A relatively **_stable characteristic_** of a person that causes individuals to **_consistently_** behave in certain ways. A combination of traits froms the personality.

Answer 399

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * 1. Gordon Allport – all of us have different traits. Came up with list of 4500 different descriptive words for traits. From those he was able to come up with 3 basic categories of traits: **_cardinal_**, **_central_**, and **_secondary_** traits. * **_Cardinal_** traits are characteristics that direct most of person's activities – the dominant traits. Influence all of our behaviours, including **_secondary_** and **_central_** traits. * **_Central_** trait is ex. honesty, sociability, shyness. Less dominant than **_cardinal_**. * **_Secondary_** trait is love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat – more preferences/attitudes

Answer 400

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * Raymond **_Cattell_** – proposed we all had **_16 personality traits_** that represent basic dimensions of personality. Turned this into the **_16 personality factor_** questionaire, or **_16 PF_**.

Answer 401

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * Hans **_Eysenck_** – We have 3 major dimensions of personality, which encompass all traits we all possess, but the degrees to which we individually express them are different. **_Allport_** said we have different unique subsets, **_Eysenck_** says we all have them but just express them in different degrees. These three are **_extroversion_** [vs. introversion (– degree of sociability)], **_neuroticism_**, (emotional stability), and **_psychoticism_** (degree to which reality is distorted). However, Eysenck said not all necessarily have psychoticism (degree to whcih reality is distorted). However, Eysenck said not all necessarily have **_psychoticism_**.

Answer 402

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * **_5 Factor Model_** (**_Big 5 Personality Traits_**) – found in all people of all populations. * **_Openness_** - independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical * **_Conscientousness_** - careful vs carelss, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not * **_Extroversion_** – talkative or quiet, fun loving or sober * **_Agreeableness_** - kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfirendly * **_Neuroticism_** - stable vs. tense, calm vs. anxious, secure vs. insecure * Use acronym **OCEAN**.

Answer 403

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * Cattell, Eysenck, and Big 5 all use **_factor analyisis_** – a statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits. Allport's theory did not, he used different methods. * **_Factor analysis_**: Reduces variable and detects structure between variables. We get a final classification of personality after factor analysis.

Answer 404

Observational Learning: Bobo Doll Experiment and Social Cognitive Theory on Personality * Observational learning (aka social learning/vicarious learning) is learned through watching and imitating others – such as **_modeling_** the actions of another. * **_Mirror Neurons_** found that support this * Aggression is environmentally learned and mass-media can have a performance effect (performance is situationally dependent depending on if the actor is rewarded or punished)

Answer 405

**_Social Cognitive Theory_** (originally called social learning theory) is theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment. Unlike **_behaviourism_** (where environment controls us entirely), cognition is also important. * Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors (ex. opinions/attitudes of firends and family) can influence your beliefs.

Answer 406

**_Albert Bandura_** studied the Social Cognitive Theory, and he did the **_Bobo Doll Experiment_**. **_Bandura's_** **_Experiment_** is cited when people debate if they should ban violent video games. It's a blow up doll you can punch. * Had group of children doing arts and crafts, but in middle of it suddenly man appeared and started hitting this inflatable doll. Also screaming “kick it, hit it, etc”. Did for 10 minutes straight. Some children observed it, others weren’t fazed. * Then man left, and researchers gave kids an impossible puzzle to solve to frustrate them. Researched how the kids reacted to frustration. In the room was a bobo doll. Many children would come up to the doll and hit it, and ones hitting it were yelling kick it, hit it. Revealed that kids can observe and learn from it. * Why people use this to argue to ban violent games and movies. * But learning vs. performing it is different. Many of the kids were aggressive to the doll, others weren't, so how come some the kids are different and did not beat the shit out of the doll? * Did second experiment, set up TV that showed a bobodoll and someone being aggressive to it. But difference here was video showed afterwards that person was punished. Some of the kids again walked up to the bobo doll to hit it. What about kids that didn't? * Researchers bribed kids, offered them sticker/juic to imitate behavior. Kids were able to imitate. The concept was called the **_learning-performance distinction_** – learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things. * Not performing it doesn't mean you didn't learn it!

Answer 407

Albert Bandura studied the Social Cognitive Theory, and he did the Bobo Doll Experiment. From his experimentation, he came up with **_Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory_** - **_Attention_**, **_Memory_**, **_Imitation_**, **_Motivation_**. Acronym: “AM I Motivated?” * For example, want to teach you to draw a star. In order to learn it, you need a long enough attention span, the memory to remember it, and be able to imitate it. Question is, are you motivated enough to do it? If you are, you do the action (draw the star).

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