KIN Chapters 1-3 Flashcards
(118 cards)
1
Q
What are the domains of human development?
A
Cognitive, affective, motor, and physical development.
2
Q
What does realizing that human development is multifaced and integrated allow us to do?
A
To study the ‘whole’ person instead of the parts of a person.
3
Q
3 reasons to study motor development?
A
1 To better understand our present and past
2 To diagnose, intervene, or remediate problems.
3 To establish appropriate developmental activities for all ages.
4
Q
What does motor development study?
A
Changes in human motor behaviour over the lifespan; the processes that underlie these changes, and the factors that affect them.
5
Q
What are the 8 significant facts about development?
A
1 Early foundations are critical; they determine the quality of existence and performance in later years.
2 Maturation and learning both play vital roles in development; setting limits that people cannot progress past.
3 Development follows a definite and predictable pattern.
4 Everyone is different.
5 Each development stage has a characteristic behaviour; each stage is usually age-related and characterized by patterns.
6 Development is aided by stimulation; this can help a child reach their full potential
7 Development is affected by cultural changes
8 There are social expectations for every stage of development; for example, a baby should be walking by 18 months.
6
Q
What are the 3 most common designs in studying human motor development?
A
Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential charts.
7
Q
4 parts of the Ethics Criteria
A
1 Participants must provide informed consent prior to their participation
2 Participants information must be kept confidential
3 If someone’s chosen to participate, they won’t be harmed in any way and can withdraw at any time
4 Any benefits to the researcher or participate must be disclosed before someone participates.
8
Q
What is maturation?
A
It’s qualitative and descriptive, involving the functioning of organs and tissues.
Ex) A child can only walk after they’re able to support the weight of their head.
9
Q
What is growth?
A
It’s quantitative (related to numbers), and involves the increase of body size.
10
Q
What is development?
A
An interactional process between maturation and growth that leads to changes in behaviour throughout life.
It’s a function of adaptations through life as we learn to integrate our personal, structural, and functional characteristics with our environment.
11
Q
What does cephalocaudal mean?
A
Means a developmental direction from head to toe.
Movement in the body usually starts in the head area and works downward.
12
Q
What does proximodistal mean?
A
Means a developmental direction from the inside out.
Motor development progresses from points close to the body’s centre outwards.
13
Q
What’s a product vs process approach?
A
A product approach is focused on the end result, and a process approach is focused on what is happening during the execution of a skill.
14
Q
What is June’s definition of play?
A
A voluntary, spontaneous activity that one enjoys..
15
Q
What does the American Academy of Pediatrics say about play?
A
That it is an essential element to a child’s learning. It’s a major socializing agent for children.
16
Q
When referring to a human process, what is motor development?
A
The changes that occur in our ability to move and our movement in general.
17
Q
What is motor development as a field of study?
A
The study of changes in human movement across the lifespan and the processes that affect those changes.
It seeks to determine what changes we see in human movement and when/how/why change occurs.
18
Q
What is the developmental perspective interested in?
A
In understanding what movement was, what it will be, and how/why it was and will be.
19
Q
Why is our current perspective somewhat biased and needs more cross-cultural research?
A
Because research was done in Western countries studying traditional Western people.
20
Q
What are the domains of human behaviour constantly doing?
A
These 4 domains are constantly interacting, and a complete understanding of any one requires knowledge about the domains it interacts with.
21
Q
How does understanding the way people typically develop movement skills help us do?
A
It helps us diagnose problems in people that may be developing atypically. Motor development effects the development of cognitive, social, and physical behaviours throughout life.
22
Q
What is the cognitive domain?
A
It studies the human intellectual development and has been the main focus of developmentalists throughout history.
23
Q
What is the affective domain?
A
It studies the social and emotional aspects of development, and is often referred to as the socioemotional domain.
24
Q
What is the psychomotor domain?
A
It studies human development and the factors that affect that development, and is often referred to as the motor domain.
25
What is the physical domain?
It studies physical change; all types of bodily change that are separate from motor development.
26
What does the term development refer to?
The changes we experience as we pass through life.
These changes result with age, experiences in life, genetic potential, and all 3 at any given time.
It's age-related but not age-determined
27
What does age-appropriateness refer to?
What does individual-appropriateness refer to?
The predictable sequences of growth and development that most children go through.
It's the uniqueness of each child. Each has individual patterns and rates of growth, personalities, approaches to learning, and experiences.
28
What do we need to do to be most effective when working with children?
We need to think about what we know about age and developmental status to provide a general idea of what activities, routines, interactions, and curriculum they can go through.
29
Elements of Developmental Change
1. What does 'qualitative' say about developmental change?
2. What about 'sequential'?
3. What about 'cumalitive'?
4. What about 'directional'?
5. What about 'multifactorial'?
6. What about 'individual'?
1. 'qualitative'That developmental change is not just 'more of something, and that it may not always be progressive or positive.
2. 'sequential' It says that certain motor patterns lead up to others, and that patterns are orderly in their appearance.
3. 'cumalitive' That behaviours are additive
4. 'directional' That development has an ultimate goal
5. 'multifactorial' No one factor can direct change; they all influence each other.
6. 'individual' Rate of development varies for everyone.
30
What are maturation and growth?
Maturation is the qualitative functional changes that occur with age: The organizational changes in the function of organs and tissues.
Growth is the quantitative structural changes that occur with age: an increase in physical size.
They're intertwined because functions change as the body grows.
Growth slows down, but maturation continues until the end of life.
31
What are the developmental directions? What does each part mean?
Cephalocaudal and proximodistal. They indicate the direction which growth and movement maturation proceeds.
The cephalocaudal concept means 'from head to tail' and can be applied to both physical growth and maturation of movement.
Proximodisstal means from points close to the bodies centre to points farthest from the bodies centre.
Movement regression slowly evolves from tail to head and outside-in.
32
What are differentiation and integration?
Differentiation is the progression from gross, immature movement to precise intentional movement.
Integration is a related, similar change that occurs as ones movement ability progresses. Many muscle systems develop/change duties as movement skills improve.
They reverse when movement regression occurs later in life: coordination and parts's ability to preform return to a lower level of functioning.
33
What are gross and fine movements?
Gross movements are controlled by the large muscles/muscle groups.
Fine movements are controlled by small muscle/muscle groups.
34
What do researches believe about process over product studying?
That process reveals more information about the underlying factors that're critical to understanding human movement.
35
What is the prenatal term? What periods lie within it?
From conception to birth, and is believed to be one of the most influential periods of life.
In the embryonic period is when the baby is an embryo, and the fetal period begins at the end of the first 8 weeks, and they're a fetus until birth.
36
What makes up the neonatal period?
From the first 28 days after birth to the first birthday, and is called infancy.
37
When is a child a toddler?
When they begin to walk alone; usually starting at the first year, and it ends at age 4.
38
When is early, middle, and late childhood?
Early is in the years from age 4 to 7.
Middles is from 7-9
Late is from 9-12.
A child in the middle childhood is different in many ways from one in late childhood, but the transformation is gradual.
39
What is puberty? When is it and adulthood achieved? What is usually a marker of this?
The time of radical hormonal releases that're directly/indirectly associated with many behavioural changes in adolescence.
It marks when adolescence begins.
Usually in girls around 11 and boys at age 13.
Adulthood starts for women at 19 and men at 2, and encompasses over 60 years. Early adulthood is from 20-40, and middle is from 40 to 60, and late adulthood goes from 60 to death.
Usually marked by reaching a max height.
40
Each stage of behaviour flows into a different stage and each is distinct in its own ways, but possesses traits that link it to the preceding stage. True or False?
True
41
Research is sure that there are stages to human motor development.
False. They're unsure whether they exist or not.
42
How did Gallague, Ozmun, and Goodway represent motor development?
With an hourglass; as time passes, stages of development move up the hourglass.
43
What are constraints?
Factors that limit/contain/help shape movement development.
Time spent in each period of development is different for each person.
44
What is Clark and Metcalfe's representation of motor development?
What are the 6 different periods?
The mountain of motor development. It combines the description of expected changes in motor development with explanations for how they may happen. It's a non-linear process.
The reflexive period: beginning to learn the was of the world; involuntary responses to stimuli.
Preadapted period: Produce movements that're often conscious and intentional; the emergence of motor skills.
Fundamental patterns period: Builds on learned skills; the emergence of fundamental locomotor skills (object projection and object interception skills), and fine motor manipulation; the base camp of development.
Context-specific period: Opportunities for expanding movement by combining learned patterns to new and different movement situations; the mountain splits to many peaks at this period.
Skillful period: Experience and practice is needed; higher level of proficiency and expertise. There's a limit to the number of skills people can fully achieve.
Compensation period: nullifying of/adaptation to effects of a negative influence (from injury or from declines that come from age); a regression in skills.
45
WHy did the system of categorizing domains evolve?
Because it's useful for organizing and simplifying the study of human development.
46
What is a greater predictor of later cognitive development than early fine movement/intellectual ability itself?
Early gross movement abilities.
It's specifically been found to impact many areas of IQ development and the speech of which information is processed intellectually.
47
What is the developmental coordination disorder (DCD)?
It's characterized by impaired motor coordination that interferes with academic achievement and general activities of daily living.
It's more common in boys than girls
May be related to central nervous system dysfunctions, but can be made better by therapeutic interventions.
An example of the dynamic interplay between sensorimotor and cognition systems.
48
What can intrinsic architectural changes in the brain lead to?
They can lead to positive behavioural and cognitive changes.
49
What did Imamizu believe about experiences and movement activities?
That it affects large-scale brain networks, and being able to fully understand this relationship is useful for devising specific tasks that'll most positively affect the brain's structure and function.
50
There's a weak relationship between motor skill learning and performance and cognitive function. True or false?
False. There's a strong connection.
51
What does cognitive refer to?
Our reasoning, intellect, thought processes, or simply the acquisition of knowledge.
52
What domain of human behaviour have developmentalists paid more attention to?
The cognitive development.
53
What did Piaget become interested in?
In examining how we 'know'; the process of thinking.
He believes that this process is a critical function in life that enables us to adapt to our environment.
54
What was Piaget's clinical method?
A system of collecting data in question-and-answer sessions to understand more fully the process of thinking.
55
What does Piaget's theory of development provide a guideline for?
For understanding the changing thought process throughout childhood and adolescence.
Because cognitive and motor development are constantly interacting, awareness of his theory is critical to a thorough understanding of motor development.
56
What are adaptation, assimilation, and accommodation?
Adaptation is adjusting the demands of the environment and the intellectualization of that adjustment through 2 complementary acts.
Assimilation is a process where kids attempt to interpret new experiences based on their present interpretation of the world.
Accommodation is when the individual attempts to adjust existing thought structures to account for new experiences.
Assimilation and accommodation always work together.
57
What are Piaget's 4 stages?
They're always experienced in the same order, and no stage is ever skipped, but the rate of progress and degree of completion vary with each child.
Sensorimotor Stage: Intelligence develops as a result of movement actions and their consequences. It usually lasts in the first 24 months of life. A time of creating a foundation for all subsequent understanding that hinges on a child's ability to perform bodily movement.
Preoperational Stage: Builds on the skills learned earlier in life as the child becomes more imaginative in play, and everyone views the world from a slightly different perspective. Goes from years 2-5. Language development is the most important characteristic. They cannot yet think logically or operationally.
Concrete Operational Stage: An enhanced ability to decenter attention from one variable in a problem-solving situation. They gain the mental ability to modify, organize, and even reverse their thought processes. From ages 7-11.
Formal Operational Stage: Ability to consider ideas that aren't based on reality. From age 11-12.
58
What are Criticisms of Piaget's Theory?
That he lacks scientific control during the collection processes.
He may have potential bias because he observed his own children.
That a significant portion of the lifespan remains unaccounted for.
He underestimates the true capabilities of children.
59
Development is a lifelong process, true or false?
True.
60
What is the 5th stage that people want to add to Piaget's work?
Postformal operations, a stage of continuing cognitive development and the decline of it. It characterizes a more flexible, logical, and complex form of thought.
61
What is the contextual perspective?
The recognition that factors other than age and their effects on intellectual change.
Example, a person's goals, motivation, social activities, etc.
62
Is implicit memory intentional and done with awareness? What about explicit memory?
No. It's unintentional and done without awareness. It doesn't show much change during adulthood.
Explicit memory is intentional and tested by tests of recall or recognition. It improves until adulthood, and then shows decline.
63
What can delay or avoid declines in cognitive abilities?
Practicing them often.
64
What is motor coordination correlated with?
With academic achievement and cognitive function.
65
Our brain structures may show degradation as we age, yet maintains the ability to adapt, which is referred to as neuroplasticity. True or false.
True.
66
What is declarative knowledge? What is procedural knowledge?
Declarative: Factual information/an awareness of something.
Procedural: Understanding a procedure/how to do something.
Both are affected by changes in cognitive and motor development.
67
6 Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage
Movement is critical to the thought process.
Exercise of reflexes, in the 1st month of life. Characterized by the earliest form of movement behaviour; the reflexes and their behaviour.
Primary Circular Reactions, in the 2-4th months of life. Characterized by increased voluntary movement.
Secondary Circular Reactions, from 4-8 months of age. Characterized by more enduring behaviours; movement behaviour is intended to make an event lasting. They repeat primary circular reactions.
Secondary schemata, in the first 8-12 months. Characterized by past modes of movement are applied to new situations, allowing new behaviours to emerge.
Tertiary Circular Reactions, in the 1st half of the 2nd year. Characterized by discovery through experimentation of new ways to reach desired results.
Invention of New Means through Mental Cominfations, from 18-24 months. Characterized by metamorphosis from active involvement in movement interactions with the environment to increased reflection about these movements. The climax of the sensorimotor stage.
68
2 Substages of the Preoperational Stage
Preconceptual: From 2-4 years old. characterized by the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the environment. Critical for language development, and helps child reconstruct past events, facilitating pretend play. Movement is enhanced by play. They have transductive reasoning.
Intuitive: From 4-7 years old. Characterized by a reduction of egocentrism and continuing improvement in the use of symbols. The understanding they have of the world is based on the appearance of objects and events that may not accurately reflect reality.
69
What does transductive reasoning mean?
The child assumes that a cause-and-effect relationship exists between 2 events occurring simultaneously. This often leads to incorrect assumptions.
Example: It can't be morning yet because there's no breakfast on the table.
70
What does conservation allow?
It allows a person to understand that certain characteristics of an object may remain the same when the appearance is rearranged.
71
What is seriation? According to Piaget, at what stage can children do this?
The ability to arrange a set of items by a certain characteristic. Can be done in the concrete preoperational stage.
72
What is interpropositional thought? According to Piaget, at what stage can children do this?
It allows children to relate one or more parts of a situation to another part in order to arrive at a solution to a problem. Can be done the formal operational stage.
73
What is hypothetical-deductive reasoning? According to Piaget, at what stage can children do this?
It's a problem-solving style where the individual generates/systematically considers possible solutions to a problem.
74
Is human behaviour compartmentalized?
No. It's a complex system of constant, reciprocal exchange among an individual's cognitive, affective, motor, and physical aspects.
75
Can memory be considered a social process?
Yes, because it involves the construction of knowledge through social interaction and past actions in communications with others.
Through socialization, we acquire tools to help us organize and refine our thinking.
76
What is socialization?
An interactive process through which we make decisions about our relationships, our interpretation of information that comes to us through interaction, and what we'll say and do.
We actively participate on our own socialization.
It's an active process of forming relationships and learning from people we interact with.
77
The influence of people around us is important in determining how/when we acquire certain movement abilities. True or false.
True. The movement activities we choose affect our ability to socially fit in.
It's extremely important in determining how and when one acquires certain movements.
78
What is a norm?
A set of expectations about behaviour.
They're shared and stable perceptions held by society about the appropriate/inappropriate behaviours in a certain context.
They can facilitate or inhibit someone's movement development.
79
What is self-esteem?
How much we believe ourselves to be competent, successful, significant, and worthy; how much we like ourselves.
The value we place on ourselves as individuals.
One of the most important aspects of self that begins to emerge in early childhood.
It's learned and can change throughout life.
80
What is global self-esteem and what is a part of it?
It's strongly tied to our feelings of closeness to/acceptance of those who are significant in our lives.
Peer acceptance is a critical part during our adolescence and early adulthood.
81
Involvement in directed play/physical education has no effect on self-esteem in children. True or false.
False. It can enhance their self-esteem.
82
Can movement difficulties affect the way children are perceived socially?
Yes, and it can greatly diminish their feelings of self-worth.
83
What types of movements to people gravitate towards?
Movements where they experience success. They shy away from movements where their ability is limited, which can create a negative cycle of inactivity.
84
At what age are children beginning to compare themselves to the performance of their peers?
5 years old.
85
4 Stages of Self-esteem
Early childhood: They're incapable of making meaningful/consistent judgments about their global self-worth. They cannot distinguish between their competency in cognitive and physical skills.
Mid/Late Childhood: Their ability to express their self-worth improves as their cognitive capabilities increase.
Adolescence/Young Adulthood: They start distinguishing self-esteem through close friendships, romantic appeal, and job competence. Thier global self-worth is most affected by their self-appraisal of their own physical appearance and social acceptance.
Adulthood: They've developed a need to distinguish more elements like intimate relationships, nurturance, adequacy as a provider, and household management. There's a developmental change in one's self-esteem as these start to appear.
86
What is global self-worth?
The overall value one places on themselves as a person.
People with higher levels of self-worth are more cheerful and have higher levels of energy.
87
At ages 8-12, what part of self-esteem do children begin to develop?
The ability to distinguish among scholastic and athletic competence, peer social acceptance, physical appearance, and their own behavioral conduct.
88
What are the most important elements of self-worth in all stages?
Physical appearance and social acceptance.
89
4 stages of forming social attachment in infancy in motor development.
Infancy: Very limited social interaction. They attempt to maintain some form of contact with objects and will often express distress when the object is gone.
1: First 3 months. The baby grasps, sucks, roots, and performs other reflexes. They visually track, gaze, cry, and smile, in an effort to initiate and maintain close social attachment to an object.
2: From 3-6 months. They rapidly progress in distinguishing between strangers and familiar faces.
3: From 7 months to 2 years. They become increasingly adept at locomotion, which allows them to actively seek close physical proximity to an object.
4: They gain control of their arms and hands, which allows them to pursue and physically respond to social touches.
90
Who is the primary socializing agency during childhood?
The parents/primary caregivers.
They've been described as being 'biologically prepared' to be socializing forces.
The parent of the same sex as the child is often the most influential.
Play is also another socializing force in childhood.
91
Who is the greatest determinant of a child's movement choices and success?
The family, because they strongly influence the child's attitudes and expectations about movement.
Family's approval/dissaproval of a child's movement is also crucial.
92
What other factors play a role in a child's physical activity?
Gender, ethnicity, education level, and overall social support.
93
Play has such a profound development effect that it is often considered essential for optimal development. True or false?
True.
94
What are the 7 different types of play?
Object play: when the child explores/interacts with an object.
Rough & Tumble play: Action/physically orientated, facilitating gross motor development, negotiating skills, communication, cooperation, and promotes a healthy lifestyle.
Outdoor play: It promotes the above characteristics, as well as cognitive and language skills.
Guided play: An activity that's shaped by an adult/older supervisor.
Interpersonal play: Playing with another child.
Exploratory play: Examining/exploring detailed characteristics of objects.
Pretend play: The child creates imaginary representations with objects in the environment.
95
What are choices of play affected by?
These choices are individual and often determined by the child's gender/cultural background.
Play becomes increasingly sophisticated as a child progresses in their intellectual, social, and motor skills.
Improvements in language also enhance their play opportunities.
96
What is the importance of play?
It's a crucial part of leaning the rules of society and the skills that are critical to functioning in society.
It's a valuable tool for language development.
It helps us learn our place in the social order and fosters cooperation among members of society.
It enhances physical fitness and is key in developing motor skills.
97
What is free play an indicator of?
Of adaptability in adulthood and flexibility in goal setting.
It provides 'developmental resources' for one to succeed as an adult.
98
Why should toys be carefully selected?
Because they can be instrumental in development; they hold the potential to impact social, cognitive, language, and motor development.
99
Why is it important for caregivers to play with their child?
Because developing relationships through play is instrumental in early brain development, mastery of play activities, self-esteem, and development of play-related skills.
100
5 stages to the development of play.
1. Early reciprocal actions with caregivers. Practice play is most common: Actions are repeated, and then this repetition evolves and becomes more complex with new added components.
2. 24-30 months. 2 children play side-by-side but pay little attention to you with minimal to no attempts at social interaction.
3. 2.5 to 3.5 years. Parallel play: they don't make many attempts at social interaction, but may display more awareness of each other and subtly copy each other's play behaviour.
4. 3.5 to 4.5 years. Associative play: 2 or more children show awareness of each other and start exchanging toys, but there's no group goal.
5. 4.5 to 5 years. Cooperative play: Purposeful, group-oriented activities that involve games and even group leaders, forming social units.
101
What is pretence play?
It's fantasy play, where children will create a world that's more sensible and meaningful to them than the real world.
Ages 4-7 play like this.
It often evolves into the use of figures, dolls, other toys to create this pretend world.
102
What does Piaget believe play evolves into?
Into increasingly complex games that may involve multiple peers and have complicated rules.
They can modify the rules to accommodate or make the game more fun.
103
What does cooperative play lead to the development of?
Leadership skills; ability to compete, cooperate, and value social recognition.
104
The school becomes the second socializing agency in an adolescent's life. True or false.
False. It overtakes the family and becomes the major socializing agency. As they age, their closest non-family-aged peers become increasingly important social forces.
105
What do peer groups have the power to do?
To shape the mode of how the adolescents dress; their speech, actions, and decisions concerning participation in physical activities.
They strongly influence each other by interacting as equals.
106
Social support impacts the level of enjoyment a person experiences in an activity and enhances confidence. True or false.
True.
107
At what grades was peer support found to be most important and impacting physical activity?
Grade 1-12.
108
What do youth learn through team participation?
They learn to work towards achieving a group goal while still focusing on personal goals.
It teaches the importance of dividing labour. They learn that every team member has a job and that the team will meet its goal when members share these duties.
It teaches them about failure and success and about emotions like shame/embarrassment.
109
Which gender to parents value sport participation more for?
Males.
Children are more likely to participate in an activity when they know their parents value it and are cheering them on.
110
What is age a prime determinant of?
Sport/other physical activity involvement.
Certain life events that come with age can affect one's engagement in physical activity.
111
What are the 3 major social factors that affect movement in early adulthood?
1. Taking on a human companion with the intent of cohabitation for life.
2. Having children.
3. Leaving school/working.
These are associated with lower levels of physical activity in women.
There's greater individual variability in adults, so it's hard to predict.
112
What are the 3 situations that can cause a permanent change in motor behaviour in middle-late adulthood?
1. Children leaving home: Can cause depression and sometimes negatively effect the parent's overall quality of life.
2. Retirement: Activity tended to increase temporarily when retiring, then start to decline. Declines are more common in women than men.
3. Death of a spouse: One of life's most stressful events. It often increases depression and sleep disorders, chance of suicide, and can lead to hospitalization or disability. Widowed men increase their physical activity more than women, but then they decline after the first year.
These typically cause a regression in physical activity.
113
Which has a more positive effect on life satisfaction and physical activity, family or friends?
Friends. Researchers think that this is because you can choose your friends, whereas your family is predetermined.
114
Older age groups experience more social activities with family and friends. True or false.
False. They experience less, and may be because they're less healthy, less motivated, and have reduced cognitive resources at their disposal.
115
What negative stereotypes can affect physical activity?
Ageism. It can lead to discrimination and exclusion of elders from some activities.
Some are forced into inactivity, even when they try to be involved.
They have a powerful effect on the walking patterns of older adults.
116
What is disuse atrophy?
The wasting away of muscle mass that's the direct result of physical inactivity. Happens when the muscles aren't used sufficiently.
117
What is sarcopenia?
An age-related, involuntary loss of muscle and its corresponding strength.
118
What percentage of muscle mass have most people lost by age 80?
50%
