L1-5 Flashcards
(100 cards)
1
Q
What is Biopsychology?
A
The study of how our actions and experiences arise from our biology.
Biopsychology is scaffolded by disciplines like immunology, cognitive psychology, artificial intelligence, social neuroscience, sociobiology, genetics, etc.
2
Q
What are the three critical historical influences in the study of brain and behavior?
A
- Descartes - proposed Cartesian dualism
- Berkeley - visual distinctions learning
- Santiago Ramon y Cajal - detailed nervous system cell renderings
- Herman von Helmholtz - measured neuron signal transmission speeds
3
Q
What are the levels of analysis in behavioral neuroscience?
A
- Social Level
- Organ Level
- Neural Systems Level
- Brain Region Level
- Circuit Level
- Cellular Level
- Synaptic Level
- Molecular Level
4
Q
True or False: The brain affects behavior, and behavior also affects the brain.
A
True
5
Q
What is somatic intervention?
A
Changing something in the brain and observing the effect on behavior.
Example: Administering a hormone to some animals but not to others.
6
Q
What is the purpose of a brain?
A
To optimize an organism’s internal state by responding to needs and anticipating them proactively.
7
Q
What are the three main structures of neurons?
A
- Multipolar
- Bipolar
- Unipolar
8
Q
What are glial cells?
A
Support cells in the nervous system that supply neurons with energy, regulate blood flow, and clean up debris.
9
Q
What are the types of glial cells?
A
- Astrocyte
- Microglia
- Oligodendrocyte
- Schwann cell
10
Q
What is the Peripheral Nervous System composed of?
A
- Somatic Nervous System
- Autonomic Nervous System
11
Q
What are the two main components of the Central Nervous System?
A
- Brain
- Spinal Cord
12
Q
What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?
A
- Frontal
- Temporal
- Parietal
- Occipital
13
Q
What does the central sulcus separate?
A
The postcentral and precentral gyrus, distinguishing the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
14
Q
What are the functions of the occipital lobe?
A
- Low-level vision
- Impaired vision and object/colour/word recognition if damaged.
15
Q
What is blindsight?
A
- Patients with damage to their occipital lobe who can still ‘see’ but are unaware of what they are seeing (cortically blind)
- Patients with damage to their occipital lobe can still navigate, and can identify fearful faces, despite being cortically blind. May not be able to verbally identify objects, but can still use them.
- Associated with damage to the connections between the occipital cortex and temporal cortex.
16
Q
What is the function of the temporal lobe?
A
- Sound and speech processing
- High-level vision
- Learning and memory
17
Q
What is hemispatial neglect?
A
Patients with damage to the parietal lobe who are impaired at attending to spatial information (specifically, exhibit a deficit in attention and awareness towards contralesional space)
18
Q
What is the role of the frontal lobe?
A
- Planning
- Coordinating actions
- Complex cognition
- Executive function
- Integrating emotion and thought
19
Q
What is the basal ganglia?
A
A group of subcortical nuclei surrounding the thalamus involved in action and motor control.
20
Q
What does the thalamus do?
A
It takes input from sense organs and projects to sensory-specific regions of the cortex.
21
Q
Fill in the blank: The __________ is responsible for the majority of the brain’s computations.
A
Cerebral Cortex
22
Q
What are the three main planes for viewing the brain?
A
- Sagittal plane
- Coronal plane
- Horizontal plane
23
Q
What is ‘object associative agnosia’?
A
A condition where a patient can copy visual objects but cannot recognize the object (name, function, etc.)
This condition is linked to damage in the temporal lobe.
24
Q
What is the function of the Basal Ganglia?
A
Action and motor control
It consists of 7 subcortical nuclei surrounding the thalamus, including the caudate nucleus and the putamen.
25
What role does the Thalamus play in the brain?
It acts as a relay station for all senses except olfaction/smell, taking input from sense organs and projecting to sensory-specific regions of the cortex.
## Footnote
Damage to the thalamus can lead to sensory difficulties like visual field blindness.
26
What is the Limbic System involved in?
Emotion, motivation, learning, and memory
## Footnote
Key structures include the Olfactory Bulb (smell), Hippocampus (memory consolidation), and Amygdala (emotion, fear).
27
What is the primary function of the Cerebellum?
Coordinates movement
## Footnote
Damage to the cerebellum can result in issues with posture, balance, and the ability to perform smooth movements.
28
What does the Brain Stem coordinate?
Heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, reward, and movement
## Footnote
Damage can lead to severe motor deficits, paralysis, coma, or death.
29
What is the purpose of the Meninges?
These layers envelop the brain and spinal cord, providing protection and shock absorption.
## Footnote
Dura, pia, arachnoid
30
What is the Blood-Brain Barrier?
Tight junctions within the CNS that prevent large molecules from moving from the bloodstream into the brain
## Footnote
This barrier creates challenges for drug delivery in treatments like stroke.
31
What is a Haemorrhagic Stroke?
A rupture in an artery that allows blood to leak into the brain
## Footnote
This type of stroke can cause significant damage and is often life-threatening.
32
What is an Ischemic Stroke?
A blockage that prevents blood from reaching a brain region, causing tissue death
## Footnote
This type of stroke is often caused by clots or debris.
33
Name two types of Structural Neuroimaging.
* Computerised tomography (CT scan)
* Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
## Footnote
These imaging techniques help visualize brain structures.
34
What is the resting state potential in a neuron?
About -65 mV
## Footnote
This is the difference in electrical potential across the membrane during an inactive period.
35
What is the Action Potential?
A brief but large change in neuronal polarization that propagates along the axon
## Footnote
It is an all-or-nothing mechanism triggered once a specific threshold is reached.
36
Define Hyperpolarization.
Increasing negativity of a cell’s membrane potential
## Footnote
This can occur from -65 mV to -80 mV and is linked to inhibitory responses.
37
Define Depolarization.
Decreased polarization/negativity of the cell membrane
## Footnote
This brings the membrane potential closer to 0 mV and is linked to excitatory responses.
38
What is the Sodium-Potassium Pump?
A mechanism that maintains resting potential by pumping three sodium ions out for every two potassium ions pumped in
## Footnote
This helps establish the concentration gradient necessary for action potentials.
39
What is an Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)?
A brief change in the resting potential that produces a small local depolarization, pushing the cell closer to threshold
## Footnote
It contributes to the likelihood of firing an action potential.
40
What is an Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)?
A brief change in the resting potential that produces a small hyperpolarization, pushing the cell further away from threshold
## Footnote
This decreases the likelihood of firing an action potential.
41
What is Spatial Summation?
The summation of potentials (excitatory and inhibitory) from different parts of the cell
## Footnote
If the overall sum can depolarize the cell at the axon hillock, an action potential will occur.
42
What is Temporal Summation?
The summation of potentials that arrive at the axon hillock at different times
## Footnote
The closer together in time they are, the greater the possibility of an action potential.
43
What are Ionotropic Receptors?
Receptors that open when a transmitter binds to them, affecting the postsynaptic cell's membrane potential
## Footnote
They are also known as ligand-gated ion channels.
44
What are Metabotropic Receptors?
Receptors that activate G Proteins when a neurotransmitter binds, which can then open ion channels
## Footnote
They involve a second messenger system.
45
What is the primary function of neurotransmitters?
To transmit information between/across neurons at the synapse
## Footnote
Transmission usually consists of chemical changes, but electrical synapses can also occur.
46
What are the two main categories of Neurotransmitters?
* Amino acids
* Peptides/neuropeptides
## Footnote
Other categories include amines and gases.
47
What is the role of GABA in the brain?
It is involved in inhibition and has widespread receptors across many brain regions
## Footnote
GABA agonists include benzodiazepines which enhance inhibitory effects.
48
What are the effects of chronic alcohol misuse on the brain?
Damage to nerve cells, particularly in the frontal lobes
## Footnote
Alcohol activates GABAA receptors and stimulates dopamine pathways, leading to euphoria but also addiction.
49
What is the main action of opiates?
They provide analgesic (pain-killing) effects
## Footnote
They target mu opioid receptors, which also trigger reward mechanisms and can lead to addiction.
50
What is the difference between hormonal and neuronal transmission?
Hormonal transmission is slower and involves the release of hormones into the bloodstream, while neuronal transmission is faster and involves synaptic transmission
## Footnote
Hormones can have longer-lasting effects compared to the rapid effects of neurotransmitters.
51
What neurotransmitters are found in high concentrations in visual and sensory areas?
NE and serotonin/5-HT
## Footnote
NE stands for norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.
52
What are the main effects of opiates?
Analgesic effects – pain-killing effects
## Footnote
Opiates are substances derived from the opium poppy that are used for their pain-relieving properties.
53
Which opioid receptors are primarily targeted by most drugs?
Mu opioid receptors (MOR)
## Footnote
MOR are associated with the rewarding effects of opioids.
54
What is the risk associated with opiate use?
High risk of addiction and accidental death
## Footnote
Accidental fentanyl overdose is a significant concern in the US.
55
What do stimulants do to the nervous system?
Increase nervous system activity
## Footnote
Stimulants can enhance alertness, attention, and energy.
56
Name two examples of stimulants.
* Cocaine
* Nicotine
57
What mechanism does nicotine use to affect the brain?
Acts as an agonist on nicotinic ACh receptors
## Footnote
Nicotinic ACh receptors are mainly involved in learning and memory.
58
What type of drugs are LSD and psilocybin classified as?
Hallucinogens
## Footnote
They act as serotonin receptor agonists (5-HT2A).
59
What influences individual differences in drug abuse vulnerability?
* Biological factors (sex, genetic predisposition)
* Family situation (family breakup, poor relationships)
* Personal characteristics (aggressiveness, emotional control)
* Environmental factors (peer pressure)
* Developmental factors (age of first drug use)
60
Define hormones.
Chemical compounds that act as signals in the body
## Footnote
Hormones are a form of chemical communication, similar to neurotransmitters.
61
What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?
* Endocrine glands release hormones within the body
* Exocrine glands use ducts to secrete fluids outside the body
62
What type of cellular communication involves hormones released into the bloodstream?
Endocrine communication
## Footnote
This type of communication acts on specific target tissues.
63
What characterizes hormonal transmission compared to neuronal transmission?
* Hormonal messages are broadcast throughout the body
* Hormones act slowly (hours to weeks) compared to immediate neural effects
64
What is a neuromodulator?
A substance that influences the activity of synaptic transmitters
## Footnote
Neuromodulators modify the reactivity of cells to certain neurotransmitters.
65
What are the two main modes of hormonal action?
* Protein and Amine Hormones: Bind to receptors on the cell surface
* Steroid Hormones: Bind to receptors inside the cell
66
What are the major classes of hormones?
* Amine Hormones
* Thyroid Hormones
* Steroid Hormones
* Peptide/protein hormones
67
What do negative feedback loops do in hormonal regulation?
Inhibit further secretion of hormones
## Footnote
They help maintain hormonal balance in the body.
68
Which gland releases oxytocin and vasopressin?
Posterior Pituitary Gland
## Footnote
It is controlled by the hypothalamus and involved in water/salt balance.
69
What is the role of the hypothalamus in hormone regulation?
Regulates the hormonal secretion of other glands
## Footnote
It is the first point of contact for hormonal regulation.
70
What are the effects of glucocorticoids like cortisol?
Involved in salt/carbohydrate metabolism and inflammatory reactions
## Footnote
Cortisol is critical in the body's stress response.
71
What is osmosensation?
Thirst
## Footnote
It involves monitoring and regulating fluid levels in the body.
72
What are the two types of thirst?
* Osmotic thirst
* Hypovolemic thirst
73
What triggers osmotic thirst?
Increased saltiness of extracellular fluid
## Footnote
Detected by osmosensory neurons in the brain.
74
What is the role of baroreceptors?
Detect pressure drops resulting from fluid loss
## Footnote
They are involved in hypovolemic thirst.
75
What is metabolic adaptation?
Decrease in basal metabolism following weight loss
## Footnote
It affects appetite and energy balance.
76
What molecule is primarily used for energy in the brain?
Glucose
## Footnote
It is essential for brain function.
77
What is the principal sugar used for energy, especially in the brain?
Glucose
## Footnote
Glucose is essential for brain function and requires a constant supply.
78
What is glycogen?
A complex carbohydrate made of glucose molecules; stored for a short term in the liver and muscles.
## Footnote
Glycogen serves as a readily available energy source.
79
What regulates glycogenesis?
Insulin
## Footnote
Glycogenesis is the conversion of glucose to glycogen.
80
What controls glycogenolysis?
Glucagon
## Footnote
Glycogenolysis is the conversion of glycogen to glucose.
81
What is GLP-1?
A glucagon-like peptide that inhibits appetite and is targeted by diabetes drugs like Ozempic.
## Footnote
GLP-1 plays a crucial role in regulating hunger.
82
What does the brain require to use glucose?
A constant supply of glucose; it can use glucose without insulin.
## Footnote
In the absence of insulin, the body must use fatty acids for energy.
83
What are lipids used for?
Longer-term storage, deposited in adipose tissue.
## Footnote
Lipids serve as an energy reserve during food deprivation.
84
What happens during gluconeogenesis?
Converts fat and proteins to glucose and ketones for fuel.
## Footnote
This process occurs during prolonged food deprivation.
85
What hormones signal appetite in the hypothalamus?
Ghrelin, leptin, and insulin
## Footnote
These hormones help integrate energy balance in the arcuate region of the hypothalamus.
86
Where are appetite signals integrated in the brain?
Arcuate region in the hypothalamus.
## Footnote
This area is crucial for regulating energy balance.
87
What system is involved in the pleasurable effects of eating?
Dopamine-mediated reward system in the nucleus accumbens.
## Footnote
This system influences feeding behaviors.
88
True or False: The endocannabinoid system regulates appetite and primarily stimulates satiety.
False
## Footnote
The endocannabinoid system primarily stimulates hunger.
89
What complicates maintaining significant weight loss?
Difficulties in changing the appetite set point and negative feedback loops lowering metabolism.
## Footnote
These factors contribute to the challenge of weight loss interventions.
90
What percentage of the Irish population is suggested to be overweight or obese?
60%
## Footnote
This statistic raises questions about the assessment of health.
91
What is microbiota?
A myriad of microorganisms in the mammalian gut.
## Footnote
The gut microbiota plays a significant role in health.
92
What is a bacterial enterotype?
A personal combination of different types of bacterial species in an individual.
## Footnote
Each person's enterotype can impact health and communication with the brain.
93
What does the enteric nervous system link?
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
## Footnote
This system is crucial for gastrointestinal function.
94
How do diseases and antibiotic treatments affect gut microbiota?
They can drastically alter the balance of gut microbiota.
## Footnote
Such changes can have widespread effects on the body.
95
What does bidirectional communication between the microbiota and the brain affect?
Key brain processes, neurotransmission, and neurogenesis.
## Footnote
This communication can influence mental health and stress responses.
96
What is the HPA axis?
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis that regulates physiological responses to stress.
## Footnote
A compromised HPA axis is linked to stress and depression.
97
What dietary addition can have a positive effect on depression?
Modified Mediterranean diet combined with normal antidepressant or psychotherapy.
## Footnote
Research suggests this combination may improve mental health outcomes.
98
Define homeostasis.
The process of maintaining a stable internal environment.
## Footnote
Homeostasis is crucial for overall health and function.
99
Fill in the blank: The process of converting glucose to glycogen is called _______.
Glycogenesis
## Footnote
Glycogenesis is important for energy storage.
100
Fill in the blank: The process of converting glycogen to glucose is called _______.
Glycogenolysis
## Footnote
Glycogenolysis is essential for releasing energy.
