L14 - Trends in vaccinology 2 (Dr Alice Halliday)

Question 1

What are the main current challenges in vaccinology?

Answer 1

🌍 Current challenges in vaccinology include:

• Emerging pathogens like Ebola, SARS, and SARS-CoV
• Evolving viruses like influenza and HIV
• Old pathogens, such as TB, polio, and group A strep
• The aging population and the need for durable immune responses
• The rise in antibiotic resistance
• Growing interest in vaccines for non-communicable diseases like cancer

Question 2

How do emerging pathogens impact vaccinology?

Answer 2

🦠 Emerging pathogens (e.g., SARS-CoV-2) pose a significant threat due to their pandemic potential, requiring rapid vaccine development and novel approaches for prevention.

Question 3

What is a key problem with viruses like influenza and HIV in vaccinology?

Answer 3

🦠 Influenza and HIV are moving targets because they rapidly evolve and change their genetic makeup, making it difficult to create long-lasting, effective vaccines against them.

Question 4

What is a major challenge related to older pathogens like TB and Polio?

Answer 4

🔬 Some older pathogens, like TB and Polio, lack effective vaccines, or the existing vaccines do not provide sufficient protection in all populations, leading to ongoing challenges in public health.

Question 5

How does an aging population affect vaccinology?

Answer 5

👵 Aging populations require vaccines that generate durable immune responses because they are more susceptible to infections and may have weakened immune systems due to immunosenescence (the aging of the immune system).

Question 6

Why are antibiotic resistance and vaccines closely related?

Answer 6

💊 With the rise in antibiotic resistance, vaccines become an essential tool in preventing infections, reducing the need for antibiotics and potentially decreasing the emergence of resistant pathogens.

Question 7

What are some emerging trends in vaccinology?

Answer 7

🌟 Some emerging trends in vaccinology include:

• Rational vaccine design
• Development of therapeutic vaccines (for treatment, not just prevention)
• The use of adjuvants to enhance vaccine effectiveness
• The push towards a global vaccinology industry
• Ensuring pandemic preparedness through new vaccine platforms

Question 8

What is rational vaccine design in the context of vaccinology?

Answer 8

🧬 Rational vaccine design focuses on targeting specific antigens that can generate effective immune responses, using advanced knowledge of pathogens to guide the development of vaccines more strategically.

Question 9

What role do therapeutic vaccines play in modern vaccinology?

Answer 9

💉 Therapeutic vaccines are being explored to treat existing diseases (like cancer) rather than just prevent new infections, marking a shift in how vaccines could be used in the future.

Question 10

How do adjuvants contribute to vaccine development?

Answer 10

🧪 Adjuvants are substances added to vaccines to enhance the immune response, improving the effectiveness and durability of the vaccine without needing to increase the antigen dose.

Question 11

What challenges does the global vaccination landscape face?

Answer 11

🌍 The goal of making vaccines accessible worldwide requires addressing inequality, ensuring vaccines are available to everyone, regardless of where they live, and expanding global collaboration in vaccine production and distribution.

Question 12

Why is pandemic preparedness a focus in vaccinology?

Answer 12

🌍 Pandemic preparedness is essential in vaccinology, as rapid vaccine development for emerging diseases (like SARS-CoV-2) is critical to preventing widespread outbreaks and mitigating the impact of future pandemics.

Question 13

How can new approaches improve vaccine evaluation?

Answer 13

🧑‍🔬 New approaches to vaccine evaluation aim to speed up the process of determining vaccine efficacy and safety, especially in emergency situations, by using innovative methods like accelerated trials or alternative evaluation models.

Question 14

Why are live attenuated vaccines still important in vaccinology today?

Answer 14

💉 Despite newer technologies, live attenuated vaccines remain important because they often generate strong and long-lasting immune responses. They continue to be some of the most effective vaccines available for diseases like measles, mumps, and rubella.

Question 15

How does the history of vaccine development influence current trends in vaccinology?

Answer 15

🧬 The history of vaccine development has laid the foundation for modern approaches. Early methods, such as live attenuated and killed whole organism vaccines, paved the way for advanced strategies like reverse vaccinology and RNA vaccines, while still valuing the effectiveness of older vaccines.

Question 16

How does the development of RNA vaccines change the future of vaccinology?

Answer 16

💉 RNA vaccines, like those used in the COVID-19 pandemic, represent a game-changing technology. They allow for rapid development, flexibility in responding to emerging pathogens, and the ability to generate strong immune responses without using live virus.

Question 17

What is the “valley of death” in vaccine development?

Answer 17

🚧 The “valley of death” refers to the difficult phase in vaccine development where candidate vaccines face substantial challenges, and many fail to move forward due to lack of funding, manufacturing capacity, or problems with safety and efficacy.

Question 18

How do vaccine schedules get determined?

Answer 18

📅 Vaccine schedules are determined by immunological principles, the epidemiology of diseases, and licensing requirements. They can be adjusted to reduce doses as the epidemiology of the disease changes, which helps reduce cost and injections while maintaining effectiveness.

Question 19

What is reverse vaccinology, and how does it differ from traditional vaccine development?

Answer 19

🔄 Reverse vaccinology is a new approach that moves away from the traditional method of isolating and growing the pathogen to identify its antigens. Instead, it starts with the pathogen’s genome sequence and uses computer-based methods to identify target antigens that could elicit a protective immune response. This approach allows for more efficient and precise vaccine design, using genomic data to select the best targets for vaccine development.

Question 20

How was vaccine development traditionally carried out before reverse vaccinology?

Answer 20

Traditional vaccine development focused on identifying, purifying, and growing the pathogen of interest in the lab. The pathogen was then used to identify components (whole pathogen or parts of it) that could elicit a protective immune response. This approach was hypothesis-driven and required culturing the actual pathogen.

Question 21

What methods have enabled advancements in reverse vaccinology for understanding pathogens?

Answer 21

Advances in genomics and proteomics, particularly sequencing technologies, have enabled reverse vaccinology. Researchers can now sequence the pathogen’s genome and use computer-based methods to identify potential vaccine targets, moving away from the need to culture the organism.

*** 🧬 DNA sequencing has been a key method, with the first microbial sequence released in 1995 (Haemophilus influenza). Today, sequences for thousands of microbial species are available, which can be analyzed using subtractive pathogenome analysis to identify unique pathogen sequences. Mass spectrometry has also advanced protein science, enabling identification of surface-expressed proteins and their functions on the pathogen.

Question 22

What is subtractive pathogenome analysis?

Answer 22

🔬 Subtractive pathogenome analysis is the process of comparing pathogen sequences with those from other species to identify unique pathogen-specific sequences. This helps pinpoint the genes and proteins that are specific to the pathogen and can serve as potential vaccine targets.

Question 23

What is pathoproteome analysis in reverse vaccinology?

Answer 23

🧪 Pathoproteome analysis is similar to pathogenome analysis but focuses on protein-level information. It identifies which pathogen proteins are involved in virulence and surface expression, helping researchers find suitable vaccine candidates by studying proteins that the immune system can recognize and respond to.

Question 24

What is the basic process of reverse vaccinology in vaccine development?

Answer 24

Reverse vaccinology begins with obtaining the genome sequence of the pathogen. From this, computer-based approaches identify antigens specific to the pathogen that may be presented on its surface or contain immunogenic epitopes. These antigens are then tested through in vitro and in vivo studies to determine if they can elicit a protective immune response.

Question 25

How does reverse vaccinology differ from traditional vaccine design in terms of target selection?

Answer 25

In reverse vaccinology, target antigens are selected based on genomic data and computational analysis, not on a hypothesis-driven approach. Researchers can now screen thousands of sequences to find antigens that are likely to elicit a protective immune response, rather than focusing on a few specific proteins like in traditional methods.

Question 26

What is the significance of reverse vaccinology in modern vaccine science?

Answer 26

Reverse vaccinology represents a major transformation in vaccine development. By utilizing genomic data and immunological insights, this approach makes it possible to design vaccines more efficiently and precisely, offering new avenues for addressing emerging pathogens and diseases that were difficult to tackle with traditional methods.

Question 27

How has reverse vaccinology helped in the development of the MenB vaccine for Neisseria meningitidis?

Answer 27

🧫 The MenB vaccine, known as Bexsero, was developed using reverse vaccinology, a method that involves identifying surface-expressed proteins from Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B through computational techniques. Initially, 300 proteins were tested in mice, of which 91 were found to be surface-exposed. After further testing, three key proteins were selected and combined with an adjuvant, forming the basis of the Bexsero vaccine.

Question 28

What challenges did Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B pose in developing a vaccine?

Answer 28

❌ Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B posed challenges due to its high antigenic diversity (over 1000 strains) and the capsular polysaccharide being poorly immunogenic. Additionally, the capsule's antigenic similarity to host glycoproteins led to tolerance, meaning the immune system didn't effectively respond to it.

Question 29

How effective is the Bexsero vaccine against invasive disease and what is its effect on carriage?

Answer 29

💉 Bexsero, the vaccine for MenB, has good efficacy against invasive disease, showing around 62% efficacy in children after 2 doses. However, it has little to no effect on carriage, meaning it doesn't significantly reduce the spread of the bacteria among carriers.

Question 30

When was Bexsero adopted in the UK, and who is it given to?

Answer 30

🇬🇧 Bexsero was adopted in the UK in 2015 and is given to infants and at-risk adults as part of the national immunization schedule.

Question 31

What diseases can Group A Streptococcus (GAS) cause?

Answer 31

🦠 Group A Streptococcus (GAS) can cause both mild and severe diseases.

Question 32

What are mild infections caused by group A streptococcus

Answer 32

Mild infections include impetigo and pharyngitis.

Question 33

What are some severe diseases caused by Group A streptococcus?

Answer 33

Severe diseases include scarlet fever, sepsis, necrotizing fasciitis, pneumonia, as well as autoimmune diseases such as rheumatic fever and post-streptococcal glomerular nephritis, which can lead to rheumatic heart disease.

Question 34

What challenges do researchers face in developing a vaccine for Group A Streptococcus (GAS)?

Answer 34

💉 Challenges in developing a GAS vaccine include the variability of surface proteins (e.g., M protein), the risk of driving bad immune responses (like autoimmune diseases), and the difficulty in identifying which immune responses (antibodies, cells, or mucosal responses) are protective. Additionally, large, expensive trials are required due to the low infection rate and serotype diversity.

Question 35

How can reverse vaccinology help in addressing the challenges of a GAS vaccine?

Answer 35

🔄 Reverse vaccinology can help by identifying conserved, widely expressed surface proteins that are not highly variable across GAS strains. Using bioinformatics tools, immunoinformatics, and in silico algorithms, researchers can identify proteins that are expressed in natural infection and can elicit protective immune responses without causing harmful immune reactions.

Question 36

What has recent research found in developing a GAS vaccine?

Answer 36

🧬 Recent research has sequenced over 2000 GAS genomes worldwide and identified 15 highly conserved, widely expressed surface proteins. Three of these proteins (SpyAD, SpyCEP, SLO) were shown to induce protection in mice and are being taken forward in the GSK Combo Vaccine for GAS. This approach uses reverse vaccinology to identify conserved antigens that are likely to provide protection.

Question 37

What are the challenges with using whole-cell vaccines for Group A Streptococcus?

Answer 37

🚫 The challenges with whole-cell vaccines for Group A Streptococcus include serotype diversity and strain variability. These factors make it difficult to create a universal vaccine that works against all GAS strains. Additionally, whole-cell vaccines might drive unwanted immune responses, which is a concern for safety.

Question 38

What are the key considerations when designing a GAS vaccine to avoid negative immune responses?

Answer 38

⚖️ Key considerations include identifying antigens that are conserved, expressed in natural infection, and do not drive autoimmune reactions. Research should also focus on understanding which type of immune response (antibodies, T cells, mucosal) is required for protection and ensuring the vaccine does not cause harmful autoimmunity (e.g., rheumatic heart disease).

Question 39

How are controlled human infection models useful for GAS vaccine development?

Answer 39

🧫 Controlled human infection models help by simulating natural infection in a controlled environment. This allows researchers to test vaccines for safety and efficacy while dealing with the challenge of low infection rates in the population, reducing the need for large, costly trials.

Question 40

What is the SpyAD protein, and why is it important for GAS vaccine development?

Answer 40

🧬 The SpyAD protein is one of the three proteins identified in reverse vaccinology as a potential vaccine candidate for GAS. It is highly conserved and surface-expressed, making it a good candidate for inducing a protective immune response against Group A Streptococcus.

Question 41

What is immunoinformatics and how does it contribute to GAS vaccine development?

Answer 41

🖥️ Immunoinformatics involves using bioinformatics tools to analyze immune system data, such as identifying T cell and B cell epitopes through in silico methods. It helps design vaccines by predicting which antigens will elicit a protective immune response, aiding in the development of a GAS vaccine.

Question 42

What does the future of GAS vaccine development look like?

Answer 42

🔮 The future of GAS vaccine development looks promising as recent advancements in reverse vaccinology, genomic sequencing, and immunoinformatics continue to identify conserved and immunogenic proteins for effective vaccines. GSK's combo vaccine is one step forward, and future clinical trials will help determine its efficacy and safety in humas.

Question 43

What is a challenge with the conserved proteins in Group A Streptococcus (GAS) vaccines?

Answer 43

Conserved proteins in GAS are often weakly immunogenic, meaning they don't generate a strong immune response. On the other hand, more variable proteins (like the M protein) are immunodominant, meaning they trigger stronger immune responses, but they are associated with immune system issues, such as autoimmune reactions (e.g., rheumatic heart disease).

Question 44

What does the research in Bristol focus on regarding immune responses across different ages for Group A Streptococcus (GAS)?

Answer 44

🔬 The research examines how immune responses to pharyngitis and invasive disease vary by age. Pharyngitis peaks in childhood, while invasive disease peaks in both the very young and elderly.

Question 45

Why is it important to study immune responses in different age groups when developing a vaccine for GAS?

Answer 45

🔬 Studying immune responses in younger and older populations helps identify protective immunity, particularly in the older group, to improve vaccine development.

Question 46

How is mucosal immunity relevant to GAS vaccine research in Bristol?

Answer 46

🦠 Researchers are particularly interested in mucosal immunity because it can help target infection at early stages, which is crucial for an effective vaccine.

Question 47

What is the focus of gene expression research in GAS vaccine development in Bristol?

Answer 47

🧬 The research looks at which genes are expressed in clinically relevant scenarios, helping to identify potential target antigens for vaccine development.

Question 48

What are adaptable vaccine platforms, and why are they important?

Answer 48

💉 Adaptable vaccine platforms are manufacturing approaches that can quickly be modified to insert new antigens. These platforms are crucial for responding rapidly to emerging pathogens with pandemic potential.

Question 49

What are the pros and cons of DNA vaccines?

Answer 49

🧬 Pros: Cheap, used for West Nile Virus (in horses) ❌ Cons: Poorly immunogenic in humans, limiting effectiveness for human use.

Question 50

What are the advantages and disadvantages of RNA vaccines?

Answer 50

🧬 Pros: Rapid production and effective (e.g., BNT162B2 for COVID-19) ❌ Cons: Expensive to produce, limiting accessibility.

Question 51

What are the advantages and disadvantages of viral vector vaccines?

Answer 51

💉 Pros: Cheap, storage at 4°C, rapid production (e.g., ChAdOx-S1 for COVID-19) ❌ Cons: Uncertain pre-existing immunity may affect efficacy.

Question 52

What are the benefits and drawbacks of virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines?

Answer 52

🦠 Pros: Safe, easy to produce, no adjuvant needed (e.g., HBV, HPV vaccines) ❌ Cons: Slower manufacture, which delays availability.

Question 53

Why are adaptable vaccine platforms particularly important for emerging pathogens?

Answer 53

🔬 These platforms allow for rapid adaptation to new antigens, making them essential for quick responses to pandemics and other emerging diseases.

Question 54

How have new vaccine platforms allowed for faster development of vaccines?

Answer 54

⏱️ New approaches, like mRNA vaccines, have allowed vaccines to be developed at record speed. For example, after the COVID-19 sequence was released, an mRNA vaccine was developed almost immediately, drastically reducing the time between pathogen identification and vaccine licensure. In contrast, older vaccines, such as for typhoid, took much longer to develop.

Question 55

How were SARS-CoV-2 vaccines developed so quickly?

Answer 55

⚡ Decades of research in multiple fields allowed for the rapid development of vaccines. This included advancements in sequencing (which led to the virus being sequenced and released quickly), synthetic biology (enabling lab-grown sequences), and mRNA and viral vector platforms developed for other viruses like MERS and influenza.

Question 56

How does the SARS-CoV-2 work ?

Answer 56

🔬 The mRNA vaccine works by encoding the spike protein in the lab and triggering immune responses. The ChAdOx vaccine, developed at Oxford, used prior knowledge from MERS to rapidly create a COVID-19 vaccine. This academic-driven project was later scaled up with AstraZeneca for mass production.

Question 57

How long did it take for COVID-19 vaccines to be licensed?

Answer 57

⏳ The timeline for COVID-19 vaccine development was remarkably fast compared to historical vaccines. After the sequence for SARS-CoV-2 was released, vaccines were developed in months. The mRNA vaccine technology allowed for an almost immediate response once the viral sequence was known. This was in stark contrast to older vaccines, like typhoid, which took decades to develop.

Question 58

How do mRNA vaccines work?

Answer 58

💉 mRNA vaccines are synthesized in the lab to encode a target antigen, like the spike protein in the case of COVID-19. Once injected, the mRNA is taken up by the host cells, prompting them to produce the spike protein. The immune system then recognizes this protein and creates antibodies and T cells to fight the virus. This technology was key in the rapid development of COVID-19 vaccines.

Question 59

What are viral vector vaccines and how do they work?

Answer 59

🧬 Viral vector vaccines, such as the ChAdOx-S1 developed by Oxford, use a harmless virus to deliver genetic material into cells, prompting them to produce the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2. This generates an immune response, training the body to recognize and fight the virus. This approach has been used successfully for other viruses like MERS, allowing for a quicker response to COVID-19.

Question 60

What is a Controlled Human Infection Model (CHIM)?

Answer 60

💉 A CHIM is a carefully managed research study where volunteers are purposely exposed to an infection in a safe and controlled environment, with healthcare support

Question 61

What do Controlled Human Infections help with?

Answer 61

❓It helps understand the immune response and accelerates the development of new drugs and vaccines.

Question 62

What ethical considerations are involved in CHIM studies?

Answer 62

⚖️ CHIM studies involve weighing the risk of harm to individuals against the potential health benefits for the global population. Ethical principles are similar to those used in Phase 1 clinical trials, and informed consent is essential. Volunteers are also appropriately compensated.

Question 63

How does CHIM today compare to Edward Jenner’s smallpox experiment?

Answer 63

📜 Jenner’s smallpox experiment involved deliberately infecting a child, which would be unethical today. However, modern CHIMs are controlled and highly regulated, with careful monitoring and ethical oversight, making them a safer approach for studying infections and developing vaccines.

Question 64

How have CHIM studies evolved over time?

Answer 64

📊 CHIM studies have expanded significantly in recent years. Initially, they were used for cold viruses like influenza and RSV, but now they are applied to a broad range of pathogens, including malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) to aid vaccine development.

Question 65

What is Systems Immunology

Answer 65

🔬 Systems Immunology is a broad approach to immune profiling using advanced laboratory techniques like high-dimensional flow cytometry, sequencing, and proteomics. It helps analyze immune responses, including T-cell and B-cell activity, to design better vaccines.

Question 66

How does Systems Immunology improve vaccine development?

Answer 66

🔍 It allows for thorough immune profiling, helping to identify key immune responses (like T-cell and B-cell responses). This is particularly valuable when the correlates of protection are unclear and can help find more effective vaccine targets.

Question 67

What laboratory techniques are used in systems immunology?

Answer 67

🧬 Techniques include high-dimensional flow cytometry, sequencing, proteomics, and systems serology. These tools allow scientists to analyze immune responses at a deeper, more comprehensive level.

Question 68

What recent controlled human infection model was established for Group A Streptococcus?

Answer 68

🧑‍🔬 A controlled human infection model was established where adults without pre-existing antibodies to Group A Streptococcus were exposed to the pathogen at the back of their throat to study immune responses. Around 75% developed pharyngitis, and this model is helping with vaccine development.

Question 69

Why is Systems Immunology useful for diseases with unclear correlates of protection?

Answer 69

🧬 Systems Immunology provides a comprehensive approach to identifying immune responses beyond antibodies, which are not always the key to protection. It helps uncover alternative correlates of protection, especially when traditional markers like antibodies are insufficient.

Question 70

How is Systems Immunology applied in vaccine trials?

Answer 70

🔬 In vaccine trials, immune samples are taken to apply systems immunology techniques. These techniques help identify immune signatures that predict the generation of a broad and durable immune response, aiding in vaccine efficacy evaluation.

Question 71

How are new models like organoid and humanized mice improving vaccine development?

Answer 71

🧬 New models like organoids (human or mouse cells) and humanized mice make infection models more relevant to human biology, providing more accurate insights into infections and vaccine development.

Question 72

What are adjuvants in vaccines?

Answer 72

🧬 Adjuvants are components added to vaccines to boost the immune response. They are especially important for subunit or toxoid vaccines, which only contain antigens and need help to generate a strong immune response.

Question 73

How do adjuvants enhance vaccine effectiveness?

Answer 73

💥 Adjuvants work by activating the innate immune system, triggering immune responses through mechanisms like TLR activation and intracellular pathogen-associated molecular patterns. They can also act as a depot to hold the antigen at the injection site for longer exposure.

Question 74

Why are adjuvants especially important for certain vaccines?

Answer 74

🦠 Subunit or toxoid vaccines that only contain antigens in protein form are not immunogenic on their own. Adjuvants are needed to enhance their ability to stimulate an immune response.

Question 75

What are some of the new developments in adjuvant technology?

Answer 75

🔬 New adjuvants target TLR4 (Toll-like receptor 4), which is activated by lipopolysaccharides (LPS). These new adjuvants, such as MPL, are modified LPS that trigger a strong immune response without the harmful effects of the toxic form of LPS.

Question 76

Why are some adjuvants called immunologists' "dirty little secret"?

Answer 76

💬 In the past, adjuvants were included in vaccines with little understanding of how they worked, leading to the term "dirty little secret" as coined by immunologist Jane Way. Today, we have a better understanding of how they boost the immune system.

Question 77

What are the challenges with HIV vaccines?

Answer 77

💉 HIV has a high mutation rate with antigenic variability, making it difficult to create a vaccine. It also infects T cells and can hide within the body, creating a latent infection, with no natural example of viral clearance.

Question 78

How does HIV complicate vaccine development?

Answer 78

🧠 Since HIV can hide and persist in the body, we must do better than nature to clear the virus, which makes creating an effective vaccine very challenging.

Question 79

Why is influenza vaccine development so challenging?

Answer 79

🔄 Influenza has multiple types (A, B, C) and strains that change annually. Antigenic shift and drift cause the virus to evolve rapidly, so a new vaccine is needed every year with variable efficacy.

Question 80

What is "original antigenic sin" in relation to flu vaccines?

Answer 80

🧬 Original antigenic sin refers to the immune system's tendency to remember and respond better to the first strain of flu it encountered, which can impair immune responses to new strains, making vaccines less effective.

Question 81

Is a universal flu vaccine possible?

Answer 81

🦠 Vaccine developers are working towards a universal flu vaccine that would protect against all flu strains, including future pandemic strains, but no breakthrough has been achieved yet.

Question 82

What is the current vaccine for tuberculosis (TB)?

Answer 82

💉 The current vaccine is BCG, a live attenuated vaccine that is safe and cheap, but has variable efficacy and does not protect against latent infection.

Question 83

Why is latent TB infection a global challenge?

Answer 83

🌍 Latent TB affects about 25% of the world’s population. These individuals may develop active TB later in life, making a better vaccine essential to prevent both infection and disease progression.

Question 84

What kind of immune response is important for TB vaccines?

Answer 84

🧠 The protective immunity for TB is cell-mediated (not antibody-based), which involves T cells to fight off intracellular TB infection.

Question 85

What recent findings show promise for TB vaccines?

Answer 85

🔬 Recent studies suggest that re-vaccinating with BCG in adolescence can protect against sustained TB infection, and the M72/AS01 subunit vaccine showed 49.7% efficacy against disease progression after 3 years.

Question 86

How has India contributed to global vaccine supply?

Answer 86

🇮🇳 India is now a major contributor to global vaccine supply, developing vaccines cheaply and performing studies in low and middle-income countries to ensure efficacy for these populations.

Question 87

Why do vaccine efficacy studies in high-income countries not always translate to target populations?

Answer 87

💡 Vaccine efficacy studies conducted in high-income countries (e.g., UK, US) may not reflect the unique conditions and health disparities of target populations in low and middle-income countries.

Question 88

What is the significance of the new malaria vaccine?

Answer 88

🌍 The new malaria vaccine improves upon older versions and is a significant step forward in fighting malaria, especially in endemic areas where the disease remains a major health burden.

Question 89

What is the focus of the meningitis A vaccine developed for Africa?

Answer 89

🌍 The meningitis A vaccine, developed in collaboration with the Serum Institute of India, focuses specifically on meningitis A, which causes significant disease and disability in Africa's meningitis belt.

Question 90

How can vaccines be used to treat cancer?

Answer 90

🧬 Cancer vaccines aim to reprogram the immune system to target cancer antigens. This is challenging because tumors have multiple immune evasion mechanisms, but it remains an exciting field of research.

Question 91

Are vaccines being developed for diseases beyond infectious ones?

Answer 91

💡 Yes, therapeutic vaccines are being developed for diseases like HIV, Alzheimer's, and cancer, aiming to treat conditions after they are acquired rather than just prevent them.

Question 92

How are vaccines different from antibiotics in terms of resistance?

Answer 92

💉 Vaccines rarely lead to resistance by pathogens, unlike antibiotics, which frequently face resistance. This makes vaccines a powerful tool for disease eradication.

Question 93

Why is immunology key in the field of vaccinology?

Answer 93

🧠 Immunology plays a crucial role in vaccinology, as understanding the immune response is essential for developing effective vaccines and improving vaccine design across various diseases.