L6-11 Flashcards
(112 cards)
1
Q
What are biological rhythms?
A
Rhythms that range from cellular processes to prominent cycles, measured in seconds to months and seasons.
They can be behavioural, physiological, or biochemical.
2
Q
What is a circadian rhythm?
A
A biological rhythm that displays a cycle of about 24 hours.
Latin: ‘circa’ means ‘around’ and ‘dies’ means ‘day’.
3
Q
What is a zeitgeber?
A
An external time cue that synchronizes biological rhythms, such as sunlight for the sleep-wake cycle.
4
Q
What are infradian rhythms?
A
Biological rhythms that last longer than a day, such as reproductive cycles or the menstrual cycle.
5
Q
What are ultradian rhythms?
A
Biological rhythms that are shorter than a day, like feeding and hormone release cycles.
6
Q
What is the role of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)?
A
It drives the circadian clock and helps entrain rhythms to light–dark cycles.
7
Q
What is the daily loop of the circadian clock? (e.g., relevant proteins)
A
A process where light influences the production of clock and cycle proteins, which in turn regulate other proteins in a feedback loop.
8
Q
What are the main functions of sleep?
A
- Conserve energy
- Learning and memory consolidation
- Support the immune system
9
Q
What are the stages of NREM sleep?
A
Stages 1, 2, and 3, with Stage 3 being defined by slow wave sleep (SWS) and delta waves.
10
Q
What brain wave activity characterizes REM sleep?
A
EEG activity resembles that of an awake person with beta waves.
11
Q
What is muscle atonia in the context of sleep?
A
A condition during REM sleep where muscles are relaxed and limp due to inhibition of motor neurons.
12
Q
What is the impact of sleep on the immune system?
A
Sleep deprivation can compromise the body’s response to vaccines.
13
Q
Consequences of Poor Sleep
A
- Temporary cognitive deficits
- Immune system issues
- Learning and memory problems
14
Q
What is the role of the reticular formation in sleep?
A
It activates the brain and promotes wakefulness; lesions can lead to constant sleep.
15
Q
What is the basal forebrain’s function?
A
It inhibits the reticular formation and induces slow wave sleep by releasing GABA.
16
Q
What is sleep hygiene?
A
Practices that promote better sleep quality, such as keeping a sleep routine and avoiding screens at night.
17
Q
What is Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection?
A
A principle that explains how species evolve through advantageous traits being favored in populations.
18
Q
What are the three types of natural selection?
A
- Directional
- Stabilising
- Disruptive
19
Q
What is phylogeny?
A
The study of the evolutionary history of a particular group of organisms.
20
Q
What does homoplasy refer to?
A
Resemblance of characteristics due to convergent evolution.
21
Q
What distinguishes vertebrates from invertebrates?
A
Vertebrates show similarities in brain structure, while invertebrates exhibit a wide diversity in body plans and cognitive abilities.
22
Q
What is the significance of cephalopods in studying intelligence?
A
Octopi have large brains and exhibit complex behaviors, making them intriguing for understanding intelligence.
23
Q
What is the role of genetic mutations in evolution?
A
They introduce variations that can be advantageous and passed to future generations.
24
Q
What is the function of the hypothalamus in sleep?
A
It acts as a sleep switch by releasing hypocretin into the reticular formation, basal forebrain, and subcoeurelus pons; damage can lead to narcolepsy. It promotes wakefulness and suppresses REM sleep.
25
What is the relationship between sleep and memory consolidation?
Sleep facilitates communication between the hippocampus and cortex, aiding in memory processing.
26
What is the main feature of vertebrate nervous systems?
Develop from a hollow dorsal neural tube
## Footnote
This is a fundamental aspect of vertebrate brain development.
27
What does the Social Brain Hypothesis suggest?
Larger brain is needed to maintain social relationships between similar individuals
## Footnote
This hypothesis is supported by a correlation between clique size and cortex size in primates.
28
What are the main classes of vertebrates?
* Mammals
* Snakes
* Birds
* Sharks
## Footnote
These classes represent different lines of evolution that have been proceeding for at least 200 million years.
29
What is the significance of rat models in neuroscience?
Used to study the neural basis of human behaviours
## Footnote
Examples include learning and memory, sleep, stress, and brain development.
30
What does the term 'neurogenesis' refer to?
The production of nerve cells
## Footnote
This process involves non-neural cells dividing and forming the ventricular zone.
31
Fill in the blank: The mature human brain has over _______ neurons.
[80 billion]
32
What are the six stages of structural change during development?
* Neurogenesis
* Cell Migration
* Cell Differentiation
* Synaptogenesis
* Neuronal cell death/Apoptosis
* Synapse Rearrangement
## Footnote
These stages are crucial for the development of the nervous system.
33
True or False: The relative size of the cerebral cortex is larger in humans than in rats.
True
34
What is sensory transduction?
The conversion of a sensory signal into a electrical signal to induce a change in a receptor cell's membrane potential - resulting in an action potential.
## Footnote
This process is essential for sensory perception.
35
What are the two main types of sensory receptors?
* Tonic Receptors
* Phasic Receptors
## Footnote
Tonic receptors show slow or no decline in action potential frequency, while phasic receptors display adaptation.
36
What is the function of mechanoreceptors?
Relevant to hearing and touch
## Footnote
They are found in the skin and inner ear, converting vibrations into neural activity.
37
What does the term 'receptive field' refer to?
The level of stimulation that will affect a neuron’s firing rate
## Footnote
Receptive fields can vary based on the type of sensory input.
38
Describe the role of the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).
Processes visual information and has concentric receptive fields
## Footnote
It is part of the pathway from the retina to the primary visual cortex.
39
What is the function of the optic chiasm?
Results in inversion of the visual field and contralateral processing
## Footnote
Nerve fibers from the nasal area of the retina cross here.
40
What is the primary auditory cortex (A1) responsible for?
Main activation for processing sound frequencies
## Footnote
It is tonotopically organized, with cells responsive to different frequencies.
41
Fill in the blank: The developing nervous system relies on genetic information, experience, and its _______.
[environment]
42
What does synaptogenesis refer to?
Stage marked by the rapid increase in the number of synapses
## Footnote
This occurs as axons and dendrites grow, continuing after birth.
43
What is the relationship between brain weight and volume in primates?
Correlation exists; as primate species get larger, brain weight and volume increase
## Footnote
This relationship highlights evolutionary trends.
44
What are cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)?
Proteins on cell surfaces that guide migrating cells
## Footnote
They play a crucial role in cell migration during neural development.
45
What is the significance of the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway?
Mainly ascending pathway from mechanoreceptors
## Footnote
It is involved in the transmission of tactile and proprioceptive information to the brain.
46
What does the term 'phenotype' refer to?
All of the physical characteristics of an individual
## Footnote
It is a combination of genetics and environmental influences.
47
What is the ecological niche in relation to brain structure?
Different animals have evolved specific behaviours and neural mechanisms to exploit environmental opportunities
## Footnote
This results in variations in brain size and structure.
48
What is the role of the somatosensory cortex?
Processes sensory input from the body
## Footnote
It exhibits somatotopic mapping, reflecting the amount of sensory input received.
49
Fill in the blank: The forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain are subdivisions that emerge from the _______.
[neural tube]
50
What is the significance of synapse rearrangement?
Refines synapses based on neural activity and experience
## Footnote
This process helps to optimize brain function as one matures.
51
What is the role of neurotrophic factors in neuronal cell death?
Neurons compete for these chemicals, and without enough, they die
## Footnote
This competition contributes to the efficiency of neural networks.
52
What is the main function of sensory pathways in the brain?
To process sensory information and terminate in the cerebral cortex.
## Footnote
Each sensory system has distinct pathways that pass through subcortical stations.
53
Which sensory pathway does not pass through the thalamus?
Smell.
## Footnote
Most sensory pathways, except for smell, pass through regions of the thalamus.
54
What does the concept of labelled lines refer to in sensory pathways?
Each nerve input to the brain reports only a particular type of information.
55
What is the Dorsal column-medial Lemniscal Pathway primarily responsible for?
Transmitting information from mechanoreceptors to the brain.
56
Where do fibres in the Dorsal column-medial Lemniscal Pathway decussate?
At the medulla.
57
What type of information does the anterolateral system carry?
Pain and temperature information.
58
What is the role of the superior olivary nuclei in auditory pathways?
To provide binaural analysis of auditory information.
59
What are the two main streams involved in the analysis of complex sounds?
* Dorsal stream - involved in spatial location
* Ventral stream - analyses components of sound
60
What is the function of the Fusiform face area (FFA)?
Processing faces.
61
What condition is caused by damage to the Fusiform face area?
Prosopagnosia.
62
Which hemisphere of the brain is primarily responsible for spatial cognition?
Right hemisphere.
63
What is the role of Broca’s Area?
Speech production.
64
What is aphasia?
Loss of language ability caused by brain injury.
65
What is global aphasia?
Total or near-total loss of ability to understand or produce language.
66
What does the Wada Test assess?
The involvement of the hemispheres in language.
67
What is the function of the Planum Temporale in the brain?
Crucial for speech perception.
68
What is dyslexia associated with?
Diminished activity in left posterior regions.
69
What is an example of a closed-loop mechanism in motor control?
Movements corrected during production based on sensory feedback.
70
What distinguishes open-loop mechanisms in motor control?
Movements are preset and cannot be modified by feedback once started.
71
What is the role of the primary motor cortex?
Initiates commands for action.
72
What is a central pattern generator?
A group of neurons responsible for rhythmic behavior, like walking.
73
What are the two systems involved in motor control?
* Pyramidal System
* Extrapyramidal System
74
What is the neuromuscular junction?
The region where a motor nerve terminal and muscle fibre meet.
75
What is alien hand syndrome?
A disorder involving involuntary limb movements and loss of limb ownership.
76
What causes Parkinson’s disease?
Degeneration of dopamine-containing neurons in the substantia nigra.
77
What is ideomotor apraxia?
Inability to complete a simple motor activity on command.
78
What evidence supports lateralization of function in the brain?
Neuropsychological evidence from split-brain patients.
79
What is the role of mirror neurons?
Activate when observing or executing a given movement.
80
What are the two systems of the autonomic nervous system involved in emotion?
* Sympathetic nervous system
* Parasympathetic nervous system
81
What did Ekman identify in terms of emotions?
Eight distinctive facial expressions/core emotional states.
82
What is the evolutionary perspective on emotion according to Darwin?
Certain expressions of emotions are universal.
83
What are facial expressions in the context of communication?
Paralinguistic – non-lexical communication signals; emotions are an accessory to verbal communication.
84
Define emotion.
A subjective mental state usually accompanied by distinctive behaviours and involuntary physiological changes.
85
What role does the sympathetic nervous system play in emotion?
Activates the body for action; known as the 'fight or flight' system.
86
What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Prepares the body to relax and recuperate.
87
What is the debate regarding bodily responses and emotions?
Whether emotion causes the body to respond or the other way around.
88
What does Folk Psychology suggest about the sequence of emotion and bodily response?
Emotion first, bodily response after.
89
Summarize the James-Lange Theory of emotion.
Bodily response first, emotion experienced after; stimulus-induced physiological changes cause emotions.
90
Describe the Cannon-Bard Theory.
Bodily response and emotion occur simultaneously; the cerebral cortex interprets the external stimulus and drives the emotional response.
91
What is Schachter’s Cognitive Attribution Model?
Autonomic activity may intensify the emotion felt, but does not determine which emotion is experienced.
92
What influences the emotion experienced according to Schachter's model?
Cognitive systems that assess the context.
93
Fill in the blank: The Low Road pathway in fear processing goes from the _______ to the _______.
Thalamus; Amygdala.
94
What is the purpose of the High Road pathway in fear processing?
Allows for conscious processing of stimuli.
95
What is the neural basis of happiness linked to?
DOSE of happiness: Dopamine, Oxytocin, Serotonin, Endorphins.
96
What are the characteristics of depression?
Unhappy mood, loss of interests, low energy and appetite, difficulty concentrating.
97
What is the main neurotransmitter hypothesis related to schizophrenia?
Dopamine hypothesis; excess synaptic dopamine or excessive dopamine receptors cause schizophrenia.
98
What structural differences are associated with schizophrenia?
Larger ventricle size, grey matter loss, disorganization of neurons in the hippocampus.
99
What is the prevalence of schizophrenia in the global population?
Affects about 1% of the global population, or 20 million people.
100
True or False: Depression is more prevalent in men than women.
False.
101
What is the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in depression?
Stressors trigger the release of cortisol, and depressed patients show higher levels of cortisol.
102
What are the pharmacological treatments for depression?
MAO inhibitors, SSRIs, and other antidepressants.
103
What are the characteristics of Bipolar Disorder?
Cycling between extreme positive and negative moods.
104
What is a key feature of OCD?
Obsessions (thoughts) and compulsions (acts).
105
How do SSRIs relate to OCD treatment?
Suggest serotonin dysfunction plays a role in the disorder.
106
What is the relationship between aggression and testosterone in humans?
Human males are more likely than females to commit murder and exhibit aggressive behavior.
107
What is emotional dyscontrol syndrome?
A behavior disorder that may result from temporal lobe disorders.
108
What role does the prefrontal cortex play in aggression?
Reduced size and activity of the prefrontal cortex is linked to impaired control of impulsive behavior.
109
What is the impact of chronic stress on health?
Decreases immune system competence, leading to health issues like fatigue and hypertension.
110
Fill in the blank: The dopamine pathway linked to hedonia in rat brains involves the _______ sending dopaminergic axons to the _______.
Ventral tegmental area; nucleus accumbens.
111
What is the relationship between serotonin levels and aggression?
Aggressive monkeys had the lowest levels of serotonin.
112
What is the significance of the anterior insula in the context of disgust?
Strongly linked to disgust and has been recorded in fMRI studies.
