L6, 7 & 8 - Qualitative Research - Approaches, Methods and Analysis Flashcards
(58 cards)
1
Q
What is a mixed methods approach?
A
Combining qualitative and quantitative research to reach a position.
2
Q
What is convergence/triangulation?
A
Combining approaches of data collection, increasing the reliability/validity of a finding or answering a broader question.
3
Q
What is an embedded, mixed method approach?
A
Qualitative and quantitative research occur simultaneously. Aims to increase the validity of the findings.
4
Q
What is an explanatory sequential mixed methods approach?
A
Starts with quantitative research then switches to qualitative research.
5
Q
What is an exploratory mixed methods approach?
A
Start with qualitative research, explore a theory and then test it with quantitative.
6
Q
Why would you take a mixed methods approach?
A
- Emancipation - raising qualitative research to allow their ‘voice to be heard’
- Practicality - which is logistically more convenient/fits best in the available time or resources/won’t recruit a big enough group.
- Salvaging - switching methods because its ‘gone wrong’ - i.e. switching from quant to qual if you don’t have enough responses.
- Increase validity
- Development
7
Q
Social Constructionism - Methodology
A
- Looks at how people use language and discourse to construct knowledge
- Not concerned with what people think
- Examines how acts are constructed through talk
- Identify the ways that participants construct categories in their talk
8
Q
Phenomenology - Methodology
A
- Linked to psychology and the individual human experience
- How has their experiences influenced their understanding of the world
- Uses small samples
- Takes only the perspective of the participant - the interviewers experiences should be ‘bracketed out’
- Heidegger - advanced theory by rejecting bracketing out/reduction, stating the experience has to be interpreted through the interviewers experience
9
Q
Ethnography - Methodology
A
- Used when studying a subgroup or culture
- Has an appreciation of social activity that is constructed through relationships
- Observe how people live/work to understand their way of life
- Describes groups/situations behaviours and beliefs - how and why they are this way
- Analysis can be transferred to wider socio-political agendas and power/class
- Researcher joins group to discover the most over a period of time in the natural environment
- Stems from social constructional approach, but takes a broader approach than just language
10
Q
Grounded Theory - Methodology
A
- Inductive as an approach - means no preconceived ideas
- Examines the emphasis on the meaning people attribute to events
- Interview people to gather data about their views and how they see theirselves in relation to the phenomenon being investigated
- Grounded Theory Cycle - switch between data collection and analysis to expand and validate theory, until theoretical saturation is achieved - nothing new can emerge
- Analysis is ongoing so that patterns/themes can be checked/rechecked, then more interviews, etc, and a final theory emerges from the data
11
Q
What are the 6 sample strategies that could be used?
A
- Purposive sampling
- Convinience sampling
- Maximum variation
- Deviant case sampling
- Theoretical sampling (grounded theory)
- Systematic sampling
12
Q
What is purposive sampling?
A
- Can be used in qual or quant
- Specific sub group in mind to target, and why
13
Q
What is convinience sampling?
A
- Can be used in qual or quant
- aka opportunity sampling
- Who is there? Who is logistically easiest?
14
Q
What is maximum variation sampling?
A
- Used in qual
- Try to sample people who are maximally difference (like in grounded theory to achieve theoretical saturation)
15
Q
What is deviant case sampling?
A
- Can be combined with purposive sampling
- Looks for sub-groups with ‘different’ experiences - maybe looking for a group that say something very different
16
Q
What is theoretical sampling?
A
- Used in grounded theory
- There is a cycle on ongoing analysis/data collection
- Like a combination of maximum variation, purposive sampling and deviant case sampling
17
Q
What is systematic sampling?
A
- A random sub-group of people are taken from a larger population
- More systematic
- Used in quant. research
18
Q
How can you determine sample sizes?
A
- Pragmatic approach - take into account logistics, time, funding
- Phenomonology - smaller group, typically more detailed data is taken. V. time consuming
- Grounded theory - needs people to validate the theory and achieve theoretical saturation
19
Q
What is participant observation?
A
- Type of data collection linked to ethnography
- Uses systematic observation - links with obs. schedules, quant checklists, frequency basis etc
- More in-depth than just counting observations
- Observe:
- verbal/non verbal behaviour
- on going behaviour/relationships with others
- contexts
- group status
- Observations should continue over time/across situations
- Relationships should be developed overtime to allow for obs of organic contexts
- Use field notes/transcriptions of interviews/conversational analysis
20
Q
What are the types of participants in Participant Observation?
A
- Complete participant - take time to be accepted, can be covert
- Participant as observer
- Observer as a participant
- Complete observer - covert - no participation/interaction with the group
21
Q
Observations:
A
- Taking notes with full quotes/obs/reflections
- Full field notes > more details re environment
- Goes beyond surface level
22
Q
Why use interviews:
A
- Can give more detail about an experience
- Can give more information about sensitive topics such as emotions, feelings, experiences etc
- May supplement information obtained in a questionnaire
23
Q
What is a focus group?
A
- 6-10 people
- homogenous group - all the same phenomenon
24
Q
What are the benefits of focus groups?
A
- snowballing of comments and discussion
- witness change of beliefs because of the group interaction
- witness different viewpoints in one interview
- efficient use of time
- social interaction is the data
25
What are the considerations of focus groups?
* how can you begin?
* setting ground rules
* consider using ice breakers
* reliance on the researcher running the group should decrease over time
* everyone should be encouraged/allowed to input
* researcher can play devils advocate to encourage discussion and openness
26
What is ontology?
* What the researcher considers to be real
* How we exist in the world
* What we know about the world (reality and truth)
* Linked to methodology
27
What is epistemology?
* The way in which we obtain knowledge through our relationship with reality and truth
* Concerned with getting the truth about the nature of knowledge, and what it is possible to know
28
What are the 2 ontological positions?
* Qualitative - our reality and view of the world is subjective, individual perception
* Quantitative - reality is just observable variables. There is only one reality, and is independent of subjective interpretation. Involves the laws of cause and effect.
29
What is interpretivism?
* epistemological position of qualitative research
* aka constructivism
* states that human behaviour is based upon meanings that people attribute to and bring to situations
* behavious is continously constructed/reconstructed on the basis of people's own interpretations of situations they are in
* Understanding people's views on reality
30
What are the 2 epistemological positions?
* Qualititative - Interpretivist
* Quantitative - Positivist
31
What is the aim of the interpretivist approach?
* Aims to understand social phenomena
32
What is the view of an interpretivist researcher?
* Involved in the situation they are investigating
33
What is the status of an interpretivist researcher?
* Democratic
* Equal status between them and the participant/s
34
What is the participant selection like in interpretivist/ql approach?
* Opportunistic
* Purposive
* Small cases \> thick, rich data
35
What is data analysis/theory like in the interpretivist/ql approach?
* Theory emerges from the observation/data/analysis
* INDUCTIVE
36
What is the aim of the positivist/qn approach?
* Explain/predict/controlling social phenomena
37
What is the view of the researcher in the positivist approach?
* neutral/objective/independent of the investigation
38
What is the status of a positivist/qn researcher?
* researcher is seen as the expert and of a higher status
39
What is the participant selection like in positivist/qn approach?
* Ideally uses large, random samples to allow for generalisation of results
40
What is data analysis/theory like in the positivist/qn approach?
* Theory leads to data collection/analysis, aiming to verify specific hypothesis from the theory
* DEDUCTIVE
41
Draw the Inductive/Deductive Reasoning Cycle:
42
Ethnography: What are the aims of the researcher?
* Observe, describe and classify patterns of behaviour in the natural setting
* Gather data - obs, field notes, interviews, documents, photos, papers
* Code, categorise and interpret the data into a narrative report
* Derive a holistic idea/theory from the data they've collected
43
What is action research?
* Constructivist methodology
* Co-operative enquiry
* Participants are researchers
* Research is acted on, and constantly reflected on
* Less about generating a theory - more about improving lives and enabling powerless through collaborative enquiry
* action - doing, research - inquiring
* Inquiry triggered by a specific problem
* Purpose - lead to action to solve the problem
* Can rely on quant as well as qual
44
How does action research differ from ethnography?
* Changes are implemented
* Effects are evaluated during the research period
45
What is the action research cycle?
1. Define the enquiry
2. Describing the education situation
3. Collecting and analysing/evaluating data
4. Reviewing the data & looking for contradictions
5. Tacle a contradiction by introducing change
6. Monitoring the change
7. Analysing the data about the change
8. Reviewing the change and deciding what to do next
46
What are the challenges with action research?
* High demand on resources and time
* Staff require training
* Can be difficulties managing conflict between different parties
* How much of a voice/opportunity to be involved is there for the participant/s?
47
What are the 6 evaluation criteria in qualitative research?
1. Credibility
2. Confirmability
3. Meaning in context
4. Recurrent patterning
5. Saturation
6. Transferability
48
Why do we do triangulation?
* To increase the rigour of qualitative research
* To verify and enhance the validity of the conclusions drawn
49
What are the 3 types of triangulation?
1. Methods triangulation
2. Trianguation of sources
3. Analyst triangulation
50
What is methods triangulation?
* Using a variety of data sources to verify findings
* Could compare 2 data sets in mixed methods approach
51
What is triangulation of sources?
* compare data from different sources within one data collection method (e.g. all interviews but with different people)
52
What is analyst triangulation?
* Data collection/data analysis is carried out by 2+ researchers
53
What is data analysis?
* Breaking down/segmenting data
* Identifying patterns
* Reconstructing data in a meaningful way
54
What type of data analysis?
* Depends on the theoretical position/methodology
55
What are the approaches to data analysis?
* Grounded theory
* grounded theory
* Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
* Phenomenologists using an interpretive approach
* Discourse Analysis
* Social Constructionism
* Framework Analysis
* Not related to a specific methodology
* Content Analysis
* Borders quant & qual approaches
* Thematic Analysis
* Not related to a specific methodology but must be able to justify choice if not using IPA.
* Conversational Analysis
* Symbolic Interactionism Background
56
What is thematic analysis and how do you do it?
* Uses transcription from an interview
* Read/reread the data
* Generate initial codes
* Link them together to form themes
* Themes must be grounded in the data
57
Summarise the positivist/qn:
Aim:
Position:
Status:
Selection:
Analysis/Theory Testing:
* Predict/control social phenomena
* Neutral/objective/independent of the investigation
* Expert, and of higher status that participants
* Ideally select large, random samples so results can be generalised
* Deductive theory testing - driven by a previous theory, and aims to verify a specific hypothesis from that theory
* Can be measured and tested quantitatively
58
Summarise the interpretivist:
Aim:
Position:
Status:
Selection:
Analysis/Theory Testing:
* Understand a social phenomena
* Involved in the situation/part of the situation being investigated
* See status between them and the participants as equal
* Participation recruitment varies - opportunistic/purposive. Small cases to give rich data
* Analysis - inductive interpretation
