L6: Org Structure & Culture Flashcards
(90 cards)
1
Q
define org structure
A
- all complex organisations are built up from units of organisation and consist of many units of “working” or “basic” organisations, overlaid w units of executive organisations
- clearly defined patterns of activity in which, ideally, every series of actions is functionally related to the purposes of the organisation
- the distributions, along various lines, of people among social positions that influence the role relations among these people
2
Q
def informal structures
A
the unofficial divisions, definitions, and relations that emerge over time in an organisation
3
Q
def formal structures
A
the official, explicit division of responsibiltiies, defintions of how work is to be done, and specdifications of relationships involving the members of an organisation
4
Q
what is structural duality?
A
structures shape peoples practices, but it is also peoples practices that constitue (and reproduce and change) structure
-> they influence each other
5
Q
what is the function of formal structure?
A
- minimizes or at least regulates the influence of ind differences on org outcomes (so intended to ensure reliable, standard org outputs & to achieve org goals aka to make organisations effective)
- provides setting in which leadership is exercises, decisions are made, and activities are carried out
6
Q
what was Weber’s model of an ideal bureaucracy?
A
- a clearly defined division of labor, w different tasks & responsibilities assigned to specific individuals and offices or subunits
- a hierarchy of authority in which decisions made by lower-level individuals and offices are subject to review (and possible revision) by those at higher levels
- the use of written rules and documents to govern practice & decisons, promoting consistency across individuals and subunits
- the separation of home and office, such that org resources are clearly distinguished from individuals private, personal resources and public, official roles are distinguished from private, unofficial ones
- appointment of members on the basis of their qualifications for particular jobs (vs personalistic ties)
7
Q
what does Webers ideal bureaucracy model contrast with?
A
before 20th century bureaucracys, most economic production took placein small organisations & within family units
= the craft form
8
Q
what societal preconditions gave rise to the bureaucratic form of org structures?
A
- dev of monetary based economy
- increasing urbanisation and literacy
- expansion of governments through colonization & pop growth
- the existence of other organsiations with this form (as more individuals gain experience w this form of org, the easier it is for newly created org to also adopt this form)
9
Q
what is Managerial Theory?
A
- social movement that promoted rationalized management
- developed from Scientific Management Theory
- focused on “scientifically” figuring out the best way to design organisations as a whole aka articulating core, universal principles that managers should follow in making org decisions
- came up w these principles based on their own experiences in org (cause experimentally finding their principles would be chaos)
10
Q
what were some of the Managerial Theorists principles?
A
- division of labor (divisionalization principles): managers should form org subunits on basis of either similar tasks or similar outputs
- hierarchy (the scalar principle): should have a clear one
- use of rules and written documents (excpetion principle): managers should make the criteria to be used in routine decisions explicit and then delegate responsibility for making those decisions to subordinates
11
Q
How did Woodward challenge the Managerial Theory?
A
Contingency theory: suggests structural effectiveness depends on size, technology, and other aspects
so divided firms into 3, categories:
1. small batch or unit-production system where customized items were produced in small quantities
2. large batch or mass production system where standardized items were produced in very large quantities
3. process or continuous production systems where nondiscrete items (like chemicals) were produced in large quantities
basically the structure varied systematically across different kinds of organiations
-> foundation of Contingency Theory
12
Q
What are the dimensions of formal structure?
A
- complexity
- formalization
centralization
13
Q
what are the difficulties in researching formal org structures?
A
- much of the research is comparative in nature
- used various different measures for the same aspect
- often wrongly assumes organisations can be characterized as a whole
14
Q
def complexity
A
aka differentiation
the range of job titles, different offices, and other divisions with different tasks and responsibilities
requires ways to coordinate & control the subparts so that their separate activities mesh and the more complex an org is, the more difficult it becomes to achieve such coordination & control
15
Q
what are the 3 subdimensions of complexity?
A
- horizontal complexity
- vertical (hierarchical) complexity
- spatial complexity or geographical dispersion
16
Q
def horizontal complexity
A
the ways the work tasks performed in an organisation are subdivided into different jobs and groups
often measured by job titles, specializations, or departments (for ex the greater the nr of occupations & longer the period of training required, the more complex the org)
17
Q
what are the consequences of horizontal complexity
pros & cons
A
pros:
- increased complexity often leads to greater efficiency in carrying out work activities (cause ppl are specialized in their tasks-
- if u see horizontal complexity as involving a greater number of specialists then highly horizontal complex org are more innovative
cons
- problems of control
- problems of coordination
- conflict
neutral: increases in administrative intensity, measured by supervisory personnel
18
Q
def vertical complexity
A
involves the division of decision making tasks & supervisory responsibility, related to centralization
measured by a count of the nr of job positions between the chief executive & employees working on the output or total nr of levels in all divisions divided by the nr of divisions
19
Q
def spatial complexity
A
the extent to which org have different sites in different physical locations
20
Q
what are the consequences of spatial complexity?
pros & cons
A
pros
- allowing orgs to expand, especially service based organisations
- allows an org to adapt to local environments
- allows an org to take advantage of different labor markets & local resources
consµ
- coordination & control problems
21
Q
how do different types of complexity covary?
A
forms of complexity (horizontal, vertical, spatial) can vary independently, but often covary, increasing as orgs get larger
increases in horiztonal or spatial complexity can lead to increases in vertical complexity
22
Q
what could hinder organisations from becoming more complex?
A
downsizing & outsourcing
23
Q
define formalization
A
the extent to which task assignments & procedures are codified in a written record
- involves org control over the individual
- has ethical & political implications
- 2 aspects to it: having written rules & following them
24
Q
how is formalization measured
A
- through individuals perceptions of their work to gauge the level of formalization
- official written records & documents
- but different measures of formalization are only weakly related, indicating measurement problems
25
what are the organisational consequences of formalization?
- can produce reliable, predictable behaviour & outcomes
- higher levels of formalization can result in lower variability in outcomes & make it easier to train new members
- can enhance equity in the treatment of org members
- may lead to inflexibility, can prevent members from responding effectively to unantincipated problems
- presence of many rules may slow work processes
- tends to reduce innovation
26
what are individual consequences of formalization?
- high levels of it may lead to a trained incapacity and an overconcern w strict adherence to rules
- inds in highly formalized org may become increasingly unable to operate on their own initative
- professionals may resist it
27
define centralization
distribution of power within an organisation
the degree to which decision making responsibility is closely held or widely distributed
28
how is centralization measured?
- its difficult
- can use ratio of managers to nonsupervisory officials
- employee surveys to tap individuals perceptions of participation in decisions
- tannenbaums control graph represents amount of power that characterizes each hierarchical level
29
what is indirect control?
| in relation to centralization
- centralized control can take indirect forms, such as the right to assess work outcomes & allocate resources
30
what is participative management
involves taking part in decision making, while management by participation involves workers taking over management
(true power equalization in organisations is rare)
31
what are the consequences of centralization
- higher levels of it can provide greater coordination & faster deicsion making
- decisions made at higher levels may be of poorer quality if info is held at lower levels
- lack of control over work produces neg effects on attitudes & commitment
32
how is centralization related to the society in which it finds itself?
- degree of centralization reflects the society in which org are found & its capacity for effective democracy
- high centralization implies that members need tight control, while low centralization suggests members can govern themselves
33
what are the relations between complexity, formalization, and centralization?
- tend to covary, influenced by common factors like size
- org become more complex & formalized w size
- complexity often negatively related to centralization
34
what are High Performance Work Systems (HPWS)?
- characterized by broadly defined jobs, worker teams, and worker participation in governance
- they provide workers w mmore interesting work & enhance org flexibility
35
define org culture
accumulated shared learning of a group as it solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration; which has worked well enough to be considered valid, and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, feel, and behave in relation to those problems
this accumulated learning is a pattern or system of beliefs, values, behavioural norms that come to be taken for granted as basic assumptions and eventually drop out of awareness
36
what are the 4 core characteristiczs of a culture?
- stability
- depth
- breadth
- patterning
37
what is"stability" as a core characteristic of a culture?
culture defines the group, its a stabilizing force
38
what is "depth" as a core characteristic of a culture?
culture is unconscious, taken-for-granted "truths"
39
what is "breadth" as a core characteristic of a culture?
culture covers all aspects of an organisation
40
what is "patterning" as a core characteristic of a culture?
aka integration, culture ties rituals, values, and behaviours together
41
what are the 4 phases of group development?
- forming (orientation phase)
- storming (power or conflict phase)
- norming (affection phase)
- performing
42
what is the forming aka orientation phase?
- ppl come together to fulfill a task and/or reach a goal
- focus is on the "self": inclusion, influence, acceptance, and identity
43
what is the storming aka power or conflict phase?
- people in the group "test" each other, who has influence, they are emotional about tasks and ways of working
- resistance against group identity, conflicts arise and are resolved
44
what is the norming aka affection phase?
- cohesion increases, differences between group members are understood, accepted, and valued
- roles and norms are determiend, shared mental models are developed, task conflicts are avoided
45
what is the performing stage?
functional personal relations exist, effective work processes and optimal use of the various resources each brings to the group
46
what are the 2 dimensions tuckmans phases of group development focus on?
1. interpersonal relations
2. task activity in the group
47
what is the influence of founder/leader on org culture?
- have vision/choose mission: give direction
- select group members: oten choose ppl who share their vision & mission
- give initial answers/solutions: to question/problems about how to work together & how to engage w environment, based on their own assumptions, values, and beliefs
- if these answers/solutions work -> culture develops
- founders are particularly influential in new groups (or when theres a lot of uncertainty)
- later leaders influence the changes that are made
48
what are the 2 main problems that leaders have to deal with to create org culture? and that kind of make up org culture
- external adaptation: in order to survive
- internal integration: in order to be able to adapt and hence to ensure suvival potential
49
what are the 5 subcomponents a leader has to work on within external adaption?
- mission: what is the mission
- goals
- means
- measurement
- correction & repar
50
what is the mission assumption of an org culture?
| part of external adaptation tasks a leader has to fulfill
- find a "reason to be" or "what ensures our long term survival?"
- all stakeholders' interests need to be reflected in this, finding the right balance
- manifest (one thats explicit & clearly communicated) vs latent functions (what i indirectly want to achieve w my mission)
- identity & strategy
51
what is the goals assumption of an org culture?
| part of external adaptation tasks a leader has to fulfill
- make mission concrete, basis for allocating resources
- determine short term suvival tactics
52
what are the means assumption of an org culture?
| part of external adaptation tasks a leader has to fulfill
-how to achieve the mission, how to reach the goals
- most important, but invisible & unspoken
- hard to change
- consensus leads to stability, but also the danger of choosing the familiar
53
what is the measurement assumption of an org culture?
| part of external adaptation tasks a leader has to fulfill
- how do i measure my success? how do i know im achieving my goals?
- informal/formal reporting, which criteria to use
54
what is the correction & repair assumption of an org culture?
| part of external adaptation tasks a leader has to fulfill
- how do i respond to crises?
- how do i repair possible mistakes?
- reaction strategy when something goes exceptionally bad or unexpectedly well
55
why is external adaptation important?
addresses
- what needs to happen in which way?
- to what extent and how do we change if environment changes
- how can we ensure that we adapt in time to survive as an org
56
what are the 5 subcomponents a leader has to work on within intrenal integration?
- common language & categories of thought
- identity & boundaries
- power, authority, and status
- trust & openness, code of conduct
- rewards & punishments
- explain the unexplainable
57
what is the common language & categories of thought assumption of an org culture?
| part of internal integration tasks a leader has to fulfill
- semantical, qualitative, connotative language
- convey meaning, including interpretation of events
58
what is the identity & boundaries assumption of an org culture?
| part of internal integration tasks a leader has to fulfill
- how do we define whos ingroup or not? who determines? who is ingroup or not?
- boundary spanners
59
what is the power, authority, and status assumption of an org culture?
| part of internal integration tasks a leader has to fulfill
- rules for managing aggression & mastery needs
- the relevance of "face"
- importance of psych safety
60
what is the trust & openness, code of conduct assumption of an org culture?
| part of internal integration tasks a leader has to fulfill
- trust & openness very important, both before or during task execution
- level of interdependce within the org
61
what is the rewards & punishment assumption of an org culture?
| part of internal integration tasks a leader has to fulfill
- what is perceived as "punishment" vs "reward"
- who is credited for success? who is blamed for failure?
- old employees socialize younger ones
62
what is "explain the unexplaniable" assumption of an org culture?
| part of internal integration tasks a leader has to fulfill
- the social consensus on which things work
- myths and prejudice, stories
63
why is internal integration important?
deals with
- how we collaborate w each other
- how do we treat each other
64
what are primary embedding mechanisms? + the actual tools
- shape culture, tools for leaders
- work simulataneously, not sequential
- direct
1. systematic attention: consistency (not intensity), emotions
2. handling of incidents/crises
3. allocation of resources: only (part of) available resources or also "borrowing", who detemines targets
4. modeling & active coaching
5. remuneration & rewards allocation
6. selection, recruitment, promotion, excommunication system
65
what are secondary embedding mechanisms? + the indirect tools
- must be consistent w primary mechanisms
- reinforce & stabilize culture of what is informally learned, or may be obstacles for change for leaders or source of internal conflcit
1. organisational design & strucute
2. systems & procedures
3. ceremonies & rituals
4. physical environment
5. stories & legends
6. formal philosophy, published vision, mission, and values
66
what are the 2 types of organisational structures?
- formal structure
- informal structure
67
def formal structure
the official, explicit division of responsibilities, definitions of how work is to be done, and defined among org members
68
def informal structure
the unofficial divisions, definitions, and relations that emerge over time in an organisation
69
what are 3 main characteristics of classical org theories?
- one best design universally applicable
- prescriptive, from practice
- workers ignored/neglected
70
what is the org structure timeline?
- up to 19th century: craft form
- end of 19th century: industrial revolution
- beginning of 20th century: raitonal economic view: workers are lazy, ppl are motivated by money + Max Webers ideal bureaucracy
- 1920-1930s: hawhtorne studies + human relations movement
- Halfway 20th century: Joan Woodward + Contingency Theory
- end of 20th centruy: holacracy
71
what are contingency factors?
aka: it depensd on the situation/conditions!
the key things that influence how an organisation shouldb e set up or structured - theres no one "best" way to organise a company
72
what are 3 contingency factors in closed system approach?
- size
- technology
- internal or org culture
73
what is technology as a contingency factor in a clsoed system approach?
internal processes that jointly create the product or science. can differ on various dimensions:
- small batch, large batch, continuous
- level & type of interdependence: pooled, sequential, reciprocal
- level & type of tech uncertainty
74
how can an organisations' technology level & type of interdependene differ?
- thompsons interdependence typology:
- pooled: sharing resources -> mediating tech
- sequential: building on to each other's work in a logical order -> long linked tech
- reciprocal: mutually build on each other's work in and not standardizable way -> intensive technology
every type of tech is reflected in the formal org stucture
75
how can an organisations technology level & type of uncertainty differ?
perrows dimensions of tech uncerainty determines formal org structure on
- variability of input
- knowledge of means-end relations
76
what contingency factors exist in open system approach?
- national culture (and industry & professional culture)
- social pressure from the environment (instituational theory (formal structures can get "halo"); external demands (eg government regulations); environmental issues)
77
what is a closed systems approach vs open systems approach?
- closed systems approach: focuses primarily on problems of managing internal relations
- open systems: focuses largely on external or environmental influences
78
what are the effects of size on organisational structure?
- org size strongly linked to complexity, formalization, and centralization
- as orgs grow, specialization increases, leading to greater complexity
- larger orgs tend to have higher formalization & lower centralization
79
what are the problems with research organisational size?
- findings on the effects of size on structure are inconsistent w causality potentially running in either direction
- org size can be conceptualized in terms of physical capacity, personnel, inputs/outputs, or discretionary resources
- different size measures can lead to varying predictions about the relationship between size & structure
80
what are the effects of technology on org structure?
- firms dominated by "small batch" tech had a very different structure, in general than those w "large batch" tech
- Thompson developed 3fold typology based explicity on the notion that the level of interdependence in the activities of different workers is the key to distinguishing among tech types
- perrow focused on uncertainty in dev an alternative conceptualization of tech differences among orgs
81
what is small batch vs large batch vs continuous technology
small batch tech: production of relatively small quantities of nonstandardized goods
large batch tech: mass production of standardized goods
continuous tech: large scale production of nondiscrete goods
82
what is the combined effect of size & technology on org structure?
- impact of production technology on overall structure depends partly on the size of an org
83
what are the 3 types of technology
1. operations tech: the techniques used in the workflow activities of the org
2. materials tech: variability of materials used in the workflow
3. knowledge tech: varying complexities in the knowledge system used in the workflow
84
how much agency do decision makers really have over org structure?
this is debated!
- when whole sets of orgs are viewed as responding in the same way to similar tech, environmental, and other influences, though, the question can be raised about whether these "choices" are in fact beyond the volition of individual decision makers & are essentially determined by external conditions
85
what are some cross cultural variations in org structures?
- national cultures affect how orgs are structured w clear differences in formalization & centralization across countries
- but debate around how big the influence of national culture is (and whether its the country the companys is located in or where it originated)
86
what is the effect of environmental effects on org structure?
- much of org behaviour reflects efforts to cope w pressures that emanate outside org boundaries in the environment
- institutional theory staes that specific formal structures can acquire a normative halo, they come to be seen as "right and proper" elements of modern, well run organisatoins
- external cultures influences internal structure
87
what is the effects of internal culture on org structure?
- Internal culture shapes formal structures by affecting the need for and acceptability of different arrangements for control and supervision.
- Formal structures can be seen as symbolizing values and ideologies that the members of the organization accept or reject, aka culture
88
how does org culture begin?
- with founders
- they bring personal beliefs, values, and assumptions
- these values influence: who gets hired, how ppl work together, what success looks like
89
what are the 3 foundational roles of a founder?
- initating structure: founders create the orgs purpose, goals, and strategy
- imposing assumptions: they apply their own ideas about how things should be done
- setting norms through behaviour: they model behaviour that becomes "the way we do things here"
90
how do founders shape culture over time?
- through hiring & socialization: founders choose ppl who fit their worldview, reinforcing the culture
- by reacting to crises: how founders handle big challenges sets lasting cultural precedents
- via storytelling: narratives about founder actions become symbolic anchors for culture
