Lab 5 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the Glucose Experiment?
A
- Bread is made up of carbs that break down into sugars
- Complex carbs take a longer time to break down
- Foods that are harder to break down take longer to become metabolized like proteins and fats
- Metabolism changes most fats and proteins into sugars initially
- Complex carbs take a longer time to break down
- When we eat things, our blood sugar increases
- It increases at different rates based on the Glycemic Index of foods
- Easily metabolized carbohydrates and sugars have high glycemic indexes because they are metabolized quickly
- Complex carbs, proteins, and fats have lower glycemic indexes because they are metabolized slowly
2
Q
What does glucose have to do with hormones?
A
- Insulin in blood brings blood sugar concentration down
- High glycemic index foods cause more insulin to be released in a short period of time
- Bread with peanut butter would be a longer and slower spike because peanut butter is metabolized more slowly due to fat content
3
Q
Clinically, how do you see the relationship between blood glucose and hours?
A
Theres a technique that determines how well you can bring blood sugar down called an oral glucose tolerance test
4
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
Maintains physiologic conditions with negative feedback
5
Q
What is the negative feedback loop regarding homeostasis?
A
Most hormones operate within a negative feedback loop
6
Q
Do hormones act with positive feedback loops?
A
Some hormones, such as those that eject things like babies operate in a positive feedback loop
7
Q
What are autocrines?
A
Autocrines are a type of hormon signal that works on the cell that secretes it (the hormone)
8
Q
What are paracrines?
A
Paracrines are types of hormone signals that signal a cell nearby to create something
9
Q
What are endocrines?
A
Endocrines are types of hormone signals that are released in the bloodstream to signal a cell farther down
- Slow signal
- Long distance, entire blood stream
- Longer Lasting
10
Q
What are neurocrines?
A
Neurocrines are released across synapses between neurons
- Fast signal
- Short distance, synapse
- Speedy effects
11
Q
What are exocrines?
A
Exocrines are types of hormone signals that create hormones as well as enzymes
- Exterior of body
- Salivary, pancreas, sweat
12
Q
Label the major endocrine organs
A
13
Q
What is the Circadian Clock?
A
- Without the pineal gland, your body would operate on a 25 hour clock
- With the pineal gland, you secrete melatonin which is important to “turn off” the brain and suppress cortisol release from adrenal gland
- Some say melatonin supplements may change sleep-wake cycles via the placebo effect
***Melatonin makes you sleep and cortisol makes you awake
14
Q
What’s the difference between an infant and an adult’s melatonin?
A
An infant may actually be able to absorb melatonin, where an adult could not due to a developed GI system
15
Q
What gland is melatonin secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
A
- Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland
- Location of target cells: Brain
- Hormone function: Helps to set biological clock
16
Q
What does the hypothalamus do?
A
- The hypothalamus creates “releasing hormones” that travel through the hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary
- These releasing hormones cause the anterior pituitary to release other hormones that travel to effector organs
- The hypothalamus also produces 2 hormones that are released at the posterior pituitary that travel through the blood stream to effectors
17
Q
Label the following image
A
- Posterior pituitary
- Hypothalamus
- Infundibulum
- Anterior pituitary
18
Q
What is the difference between the anterior and posterior pituiatry?
A
- Basically: in the anterior pituitary there is a portal system and in the posterior pituitary there is just neurocrine
- Don’t need to know the releasing hormones (purple) just the red box
19
Q
What is the hypophyseal portal system?
A
one capillary bed directly to another capillary bed
20
Q
What gland is Human Growth Hormone (hGH) secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
A
- Human Growth Hormone (hGH) is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
- Location of target cells: Cartilage, bone, skeletal muscle, liver, and other body tissues
- Hormone function: Stimulates secretion of hormones that stimulate body growth and metabolism
21
Q
What gland is Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
A
- TSH is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
- Location of target cells: Thyroid gland
- Hormone function: Stimulates growth of thyroid gland and secretion of its hormones
22
Q
What gland is Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
A
- FSH is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
- Location of target cells: Testes and Ovaries
- Hormone function: Stimulates sperm production; stimulates oocyte procution and estrogen secretion
23
Q
What gland is Luteinizing Hormone (LH) secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
A
- LH is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
- Location of target cells: Testes and Ovaries
- Hormone function: Stimulates secretion of testosterone; triggers ovulation and stimulates secretion of estrogen and progestrogen
24
Q
What gland is Prolactin (PRL) secreted from, what is the location of target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
A
- PRL is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
- Location of target cells: Mammary gland
- Hormone function: Stimulates production and secretion of milk
25
What gland is Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* ACTH is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
* Location of target cells: Adrenal cortex
* Hormone function: Stimulates secretion of hormones by adrenal cortex
26
What gland is Melanocyte stimulating Hormone (MSH) secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* MSH is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
* Location of target cells: Skin
* Hormone function: Darkens skin pigment
27
What gland is Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* ADH is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
* Location of target cells: Kidneys
* Hormone function: Decreases water lost in urine by returning water to the blood
* You inhibit release when drinking, causing you to pee more
28
What gland is Oxytocin (OT) secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* OT is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
* Location of target cells: Uterus and mammary glands
* Hormone function: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection during suckling
* This is used in a postive feedback loop during labor
29
What gland is T3/T4 secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* T3/T4 is secreted by the thyroid gland
* Location of target cells: Most body cells
* Resides in Colloid (5)
* Hormone function: Increases metabolism and basal metabolic rate (BMR)
* Produced by Follicular cells
30
What gland is Calcitonin secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* Calcitonin is secreted by the thyroid gland
* Secreted by Parafollicular cells (4)
* Location of target cells: Osteoblast cells in bones
* Hormone function: Decreases blood calcium levels by increasing osteoblast activity
* Make sure you remember: Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) increases blood calcium
31
What gland is Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* \*\*\*PTH release is stimulated by high calcium
* PTH is secreted by the parathyroid glands
* Secreyed by principle cells
* Location of target cells: Osteoclast cells in bones
* Hormone function: Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone matrix
* This opposes calcitonin
32
Label the parts of the adrenal medulla
(4) Capsule
(5) Adrenal Cortex
(6) Adrenal medulla
33
Label the different divisions and zones of the tissue within the adrenal medulla. What do the different zones do?
34
What gland is aldosterone secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* Aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal cortex
* Location of target cells: Kidneys
* Hormone function: Decreases sodium and water loss in urine by returning sodium and water to the blood
35
What gland is cortisol secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* Cortisol is secreted by the adrenal cortex
* Location of target cells: Liver, muscle, and cells involved in body defenses
* Hormone function: Increases resistance to stress, increases blood glucose levels, and decreases inflammation
36
What gland is DHEA secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* DHEA is secreted by the adrenal cortex
* Location of target cells: Uterus, mammary glands, and other body cells involved in secondary sex characteristics
* Hormone function: Insignificant in males; increases sex drive in females
37
What gland is Epinephrine and norepinephrine secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* Epinephrine and norepinephrine is secreted by the adrenal medulla
* Location of target cells: Body cells involved in fight or flight response
* Hormone function: Promotes fight or flight response
38
Lable the pancreas image below
1. Head
2. Body
3. Tail
39
What is special about pancreas hormones?
* Has both endocrine and exocrine function
* We'll just talk about endocrine for now
* High blood sugar
* Activates release of insulin from Beta Cells, which causes more uptake of sugar by the body's cells
* Low blood sugar
* Activates release of glucagon from Alpha cells, which causes release of sugar from glycogen storage in the liver
40
What do Alpha and beta cells do in the pancreas?
* Alpha cell increase the amount of glucose in cells by secreting glucagon
* Beta cells decrease the amount of glucose going into cells and increases the amount of glucose going out of cells by secreting insulin
41
What gland is insulin secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* Insulin is secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas
* Location of target cells: Most body cells
* Hormone function: Decrease blood glucose levels by transporting glucose into body cells
42
What gland is glucagon secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* Glucagon is secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas
* Location of target cells: Liver
* Hormone function: Increases blood glucose levels by stimulating liver to break down glycogen into glucose
43
What stimulates the hormone secreted in the ovaries and testes?
* Follicle Stimulating Horme
* Stimulates sperm production in testes
* Stimulates Oocyte (egg) production and Estrogen secretion in ovaries
* Luteinizing Hormone
* Stimulates Testosterone Secretion in Testicles
* Stimulates Estrogen and Progesterone secretion in ovaries
44
What gland is Estrogen and Progesterone secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* Estrogen and Progesterone is secreted by the ovaries
* Location of target cells: uterus, mammary glands, and other body cells involved in female sexual characteristics
* Hormone function: Stimulates development of female sex characteristucs; help regulate menstrual cycle
45
What gland is testosterone secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* Testosterone is secreted by the testes
* Location of target cells: Testes, muscle, and other body cells involved in male sexual characteristics
* Hormone function: Stimulates development of male sex characteristics; stimulates male sex drive; regulates sperm production
46
In the mammary gland, what is milk ejection and milk production stimulated by?
* Milk ejection is stimulated by Oxytocin
* Milk production is stimulated by prolactin
* Also stimulared by Luteinizing Hormone
47
Discuss the uterus
* Epithelium affected by estrogen, progesterone which help maintain endometrium
* Muscle affected by Oxytocin, which promotes contraction in movement of fetus out of birth canal
* Positive feedback loop
48
What gland is thymosin secreted from, what is the location of the target cells, and what are the hormone functions?
* Thymosin is secreted by the thymus
* Location of target cells: T-cells (type if white blood cell involved in immune responses)
* Hormone function: Promotes the maturation of T-cells for the immune response
* Helps differentiate T-cells
* Also plays a role in training T-cells to become immunocompetent
49
What happens in Type I diabetes?
* Type I=No insulin production in the pancreas
* Beta cells cannot produce insulin
50
What happens in Type II diabetes?
* Type II = Insulin production
* Starts with insulin insensitivity by cells that uptake glucose
* Beta cells may lose ability to produce insulin because they become overworked
51
When do people find out that they are diabetic?
Most diabetics find out theyre diabetic when they produce too many ketones, resulting in diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
52
Answer the following question
You need to start with the glucose tablet to spike the blood sugar then we would go on to the complex carb because it is digested fast and then finally the steak dinner for protein digestion over a long period of time
53
What is lymph?
Lymph is essentially interstitial fluid (ISF)
54
What are the primary structures that collect ISF?
Lymphatic capillaries
55
What are lymphatic vessels similar to and why?
Lymphatic vessels are similar to veins because they have valves to prevent backflow
56
What are functions of lymph?
1. ISF drainage
2. Fatty Nutrient Transport (mention lacteals)
1. A, D, E, K -\> lipid soluble vitamins
3. Immune response
57
What happens if we dont have proper lymphatic fluid movement
We get swollen lymph nodes and disease of the spleen, liver, etc.
58
What parts of your body is drained by the thoracic duct vs the right lymphatic duct
* 3/4 of your body is drained into the thoracic duct
* 1/4 of your body (superior right region) is drained by the right lymphatic duct
59
Label the lymphatic tree
60
What does the thoracic duct drain into?
* The thoracic duct has corollaries that drain into both left and right subclavian vein
* Most lymph from the thoracic duct drains into the left subclavian vein
* All lymph from the right lymphatic duct drains into the right subclavian vein
61
What is the flow from capillaries to the ducts?
Capillaries -\> vessels -\> nodes -\> vessels -\> node...trunks -\> ducts
62
For each lymph node there is an ___________ and ___________ vessel
For each lymph node there is an afferent (going in) and efferent (exiting) vessel
63
Look at a this example
64
What are the similarities and differences with lymphatic vessels and veins/venules
* Similarities to veins
* Valves
* Usually flow in same direction
* Differences from veins
* No blood
* Thinner
* More valves
* One way direction to subclavian
* Blind ending "cul-de-sac"
* Less driving pressure (slower flow)
65
What are B-cells?
B-cells = Antibody-mediated immunity
* Also known as "humoral immunity" -\> why?
* Antibodies don't just bind and clump up, they can help activate cell-mediated immunity
* Role of plasma cells, B-memory cells, and B-helper cells
66
What are T-cells?
T-cells = Cell-mediated immunity
* Directly attacks cells to lyse cells
* Also can activate apoptosis
67
What are CD4 and CD8 T-cells, and how do they relate to HIV/AIDS?
* CD4 T-Cell = Helper Cell
* CD8 T-Cell = Cytotoxic
* Cytotoxic = cytoplasm + toxic
* AKA Kill T-cell
* HIV = Human immune deficiency virus
* AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency Virus
* In HIV/AIDS, CD4 cells are prevented from replicating and functioning properly
* There is also little to no activation of CD8 cells or B cells
68
How is HIV/AIDS Transmitted?
* This occurs mainly at the mucous membranes with fluids that could contain large amounts of immune cells
* such as sperm, blood, and breastmilk
* Can be passed from mother to baby
69
What are the two main AID/HIV treatments
1. Prevention
1. Condom use
2. PrEP: Pre-Exposure Prophalaxis
2. Cure
1. Not currently viable, but there is work to slow down progression of AIDS
2. People who catch it early can live longer lives and maintain an undetectable amounf with Anti-retroviral Therapy (ART/ARV)
70
Where are the Primary and secondary lymphatic sites and what happens at both of these places?
* Primary site
* Immunocompetence
* College
* Thymus (T-cells) and red bone marrow (B-cells)
* Secondary Site
* Where action occurs
* Real world
* Spleen and nodes/nodules
* T and B cells mature in primary sites (red bone marrow and thymus)
* They mature in secondary
71
Why do vaccines work? Lets talk about Thimerosal
* Memory cells allow a secondary response to be stronger
* Not everyone can be vaccinated, but if you can, you should for yourself and others!!
* Heard immunity protects the immunocompromised (like in leukemia)
* Thimerosal is a preservative for vaccines, but not most
* Thimerosal contains mercury, but has no toxic effects on the body at any concentration you would get in vaccines
* Thimerosal does not cause autism
72
What is the difference between an organ and a tissue?
An organ has a capsule where a tissue does not
73
Label the important (4) lymphatic organs
6. Thymus
8. Appendix
9. Red Bone Marrow
13. Spleen
74
What is an appendicitis? What is an appendix's function?
* It is in the right lower quadrant
* Function may be reservoir of bacteria
* Can kill you if left untreated because it can rupture
* Just an appendicitis is the inflammation of the appendix
75
What is the function of the spleen?
* Blood filtration
* Reservoir of Platelets
76
Label #4 and #5 on the picture
4. Capsule
5. White pulp
77
Why is white pulp purple in the spleen histology and why is the red pulp red?
* The white pulp is purple from the stain on the nuclei of the white pulp
* The red pulp is red from the RBCs
78
What the fuck is the purpose of the thymus?
* Helps mature T Lymphocytes
* Trains T-cells
* Mature T cells can recognize and destroy pathogens
79
What is MALT?
* Mucosae Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALTs) are aggregations of lymphatic tissue
* "populated by lymphocytes such as T cells are B cells, as well as plasma cells and macrophages, each of which is well situated to encounter antigens passing through the mucosal epithelium"
80
Label the following mother fucking lymph node
81
What is the relationship between nodes and nodules?
Nodes are bundles of nodules
82
Label the histology of a Lymph Node
83
What do you need to know about the glymphatic system?
Basically: CSF flow is a modified, highly specialized lymphatic system
84
What is Elephantiasis?
85
What are causes of elephantiasis?
86
What are signs and symptoms of elephantaisis?
87
What impact does elephantiasis have on quality of life?
88
What is the diagnosis and treatment for elephantiasis?
89
What is hashimoto's disease?
90
What are the causes of hashimoto's disease and what are the symptoms?
91
What are risk factors, symptoms, and complications relating to hashimoto's disease?
92
What are signs and symptoms of hashimoto's disease?
93
What are the diagnosis and treatment for hashimotos?
94
What is grave's disease?
95
What are the symptoms and complications of Grave's disease?
96
What are the diagnosis and treatment for graves disease?
97
What disease is an extreme form of lymphedema?
Elephantiasis
98
Which disease is the most common form of hypothyroidism? how about hyperthyroidism?
Hypothyroidism: Hashimoto's disease
Hyperthyroidism: Grave's disease
99
What disease can cause goiters?
Both hashimoto's and graves' disease
100
In which disease are excess thyroid hormones and low thyroid stimulating hormones measures?
Graves' disease
101
In which disease is excess thyroid stimulating hormone and low thyroid hormones measured?
Hashimoto's disease
102
