Lab Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
define evolution
A
process through which the characteristics of species change and through which new species arise
2
Q
define the theory of evolution
A
- unifying theory of biology
- change in allelic frequencies within a population over time
- provides direction for predictions about living things
3
Q
what does the theory of evolution state
A
- all living organisms evolved from different ancestor species
- you can observe change over a long period a time
- evolution an ongoing process in which characteristics of species change and new species arise
4
Q
define population
A
group of interbreeding individuals living in the same space and time
5
Q
define population genetics
A
- study of how selective forces change a population through changes in allele and genotypic frequencies
- how genes/alleles change in a population over time
- define evolution as change in the allele’s frequency in a population
6
Q
define allele frequency
A
- rate at which a specific allele appears within a population
7
Q
what constitutes evolution in a population (biological evolution)
A
change in the frequency of an allele over time
8
Q
define gene pool
A
- sum of all the alleles in a population and the relative proportions
9
Q
define genetic drift
A
- allele frequencies changing randomly in a population
- change has no advantage
- specific individuals just happen to reproduce more than others
10
Q
what two things compound genetic drift
A
- bottleneck effect
- founder effect
11
Q
define founder effect
A
- event that initiates an allele frequency change in an isolated part of the population
- portion of population leaving to new location
- not typical of original population
12
Q
what does the hardy-weinberg equilibrium model do
A
- mathematical model for sexually reproducing populations to determine allele frequencies and how they change over time
13
Q
what does the hardy-weinberg principle of equilibrium state
A
- population’s allele and genotype frequencies are inherently stable unless some kind of evolutionary force is acting upon the population
- assuming allele frequencies do not change from one generation to another
- assumes conditions with no mutations, migration, emigration
- no population can satisfy these conditions
- theory just used as a model to compare real population changes
14
Q
what are the 5 assumptions necessary for the hardy-weinberg model
A
- large (infinite) population size = no genetic drift
- no immigration/emigration = no gene flow
- no mutations
- random mating = no sexual selection
- no natural selection
15
Q
what is first equation in the hardy-weinberg principle
A
- p + q = 1
- p is frequency of dominant allele
- q is frequency of recessive allele
- says frequencies of both alleles add to 1
16
Q
what is the second equation in the hardy-weinberg principle
A
- p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
- p^2 is frequency of homozygous dominant genotype
- 2pq is frequency of heterozygous genotype
- q^2 is frequency of homozygous recessive genotype
- says frequencies of all genotypes add to 1
17
Q
what 5 processes promote biological evolution (change in allelic frequencies)
A
- natural selection
- sexual selection
- genetic drift
- gene flow
- mutation
18
Q
define natural selection
A
- best phenotypes for an environment or reproduction have higher chances of survival
19
Q
define gene flow
A
change in allelic frequency due to migration
20
Q
define genetic structure
A
- frequencies of resulting genotypes from frequencies of different alleles
- used to understand phenotype distribution
21
Q
what would the gene pool and genetic structure of generations look like if a population is at equilibrium
A
the same
22
Q
define selection pressure
A
driving selective force
23
Q
what size populations are more susceptible to genetic drift and why
A
- small populations
- large populations are buffered against the effects of chance; less % of overall gene pool will be lost if one individual dies
24
Q
define bottleneck effect
A
- suddenly wiping out a large portion of the genome
- natural events that randomly kill a large portion of the population
25
what is the main difference between the bottleneck and founder effect
no loss in alleles in founder effect; individuals just move to different places
26
define mutations
- changes to organisms DNA
- important driver in diversity in populations
27
define nonrandom mating
- assortative mating: choosing partner who look similar
- mating due to physical location in large populations
28
define adaptive evolution
natural selection that selects beneficial alleles and selects against damaging alleles
29
does natural selection act on individual alleles or entire organisms
- entire organisms
- organisms may carry one beneficial allele and one damaging allele
- effects of each allele determine which will be passed on
30
how can biological fitness be measured
- survivorship: those best fitted to environment have higher chance of survival
- reproductive success: those best fitted have higher mate chances
- fecundity: those best fitted have higher chances of having more offspring
31
define evolutionary fitness
natural selection selecting individuals with greater contributions to the gene pool of the next generation
32
define relative fitness
- how individual fitness compares to other organisms in the population
33
define gel electrophoresis
technique used to separate macromolecules by size
34
in the loading chamber of gel electrophoresis, which side is the negative electrode and positive electrode side
- black in negative
- red is positive
35
which way should wells be oriented in the gel electrophoresis chamber
- wells on negative electrode side (black)
36
what two things affect phenotypes
- genotypes
- environment
37
define deleterious alleles
- gene variants that affect an organism negatively
- usually recessive
- often lethal
38
define heterozygous advantage
- allows deleterious alleles to survive due to heterozygous genotype having a survival advantage over either of the homozygous genotypes
- example: sickle-cell anemia and malaria
39
describe whether each genotype has sickle cell anemia or is resistant to malaria
- HbA/HbA: normal hemoglobin, no malaria resistance
- HbA/HbS: sickle cell trait but they don't develop the disease, resistant to malaria
- HbS/HbS: sickle cell anemia
40
general characteristics of animals
- multicellular
- eukaryotic
- chemoheterotrophs/heterotrophs
- sexual reproduction
- diploid
41
where do the vast majority of animals live
aquatic environments
42
how are animals characterized and classified
- genomes/DNA
- anatomy: tissues/organs, presence/absence of body cavity, embryonic development
- symmetry
43
what are the 3 classifications based on germ layers
- no true tissues
- diploblastic
- triploblastic
44
define no true tissues germ layer
- one germ layer
45
what organisms have no true tissues (1 germ layer)
- sponges
- placozoa
46
define diploblastic
- 2 germ layers
- endoderm and ectoderm
47
what organisms are diploblastic
- cnidarians
- ctenophores
48
define triploblastic
- 3 germ layers
- endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
49
what are the 2 groups of triploblastic animals
- deuterostomes
- protostomes
50
define the endoderm germ layer
- innermost layer
- becomes gut, liver, lungs
51
define the mesoderm germ layer
- middle layer
- becomes skeleton, heart, kidney, muscle, blood
52
define the ectoderm germ layer
- outermost layer
- becomes skin and nervous system
53
define coelom
- animals that develop coeloms as embryos
- body cavity in an embryo that later develops into body cavities, body compartments, and connective tissue that holds organs in place
54
define acoelomates
- animals that do not develop a coelom as an embryo
55
what are the two types of organisms that have a coelom
- protostomes
- deuterostomes
56
define blastopore
- first opening into embryo that has a coelom
- leads into primitive embryonic gut referred to as the archenteron
57
what happens to the blastopore in protostomes and deuterostomes
- protostomes: becomes the mouth, second opening becomes anus
- deuterostomes: becomes anus, second opening becomes mouth
58
describe coelom formation in protostomes
- schizocoelous
- body cavity forms when mesodermal tissue splits
59
describe coelom formation in deuterostomes
- entercoelous
- body cavity forms when pockets on the primitive gut (archenteron) bud off
60
describe the fate of cells in protostomes and deuterostomes
- protostomes: determinate; cells are ore-programmed
- deuterostomes: indeterminate: cells are stem cells
61
what are the two groups of protostomes
- ecdysozoa: arthropoda, nematoda, etc
- lophotrochozoa: mollusca, annelida, brachiopoda, playhelminthes, etc
62
what are the 3 phyla of deuterostomes
- hemichordata
- echinodermata
- chordata
63
define asymmetrical organism
- animals with no discernable symmetry
- found in primitive animals
64
what phylum's are asymmetrical
- porifera
- placozoa
65
define radially symmetrical organisms
- animals that do not have distinct right and left sides
- symmetrical parts radiate from the center
- jellyfish
66
what phylum's are radially symmetrical
- cnidaria
- ctenophora
- echinoderms
67
define bilaterally symmetrical organisms
- animals that have distinct right and left sides
- humans
68
define invertebrates
- animal that has no backbone
69
what animal is in the phylum porifera
sponges
70
describe the phylum porifera
- sponges
- asymmetrical
- acoelomate: no coelom
- no true tissues or organs
- filter feeding
- fibrous and/or mineralized skeleton
- adults can't move; larvae are free-swimming
- hermaphroditic: male and female reproductive gonadal tissue
- reproduce asexually: budding and fragmentation
71
what are the two types of cells in sponges for feeding
- choanocytes: filter food from water
- amoebocytes: engulf and digest filtered food
72
describe the phylum cnidaria
- jellyfish, hydria, corals, anemones, sea fans
- radially symmetrical
- diploblastic
- special cells called cnidocytes for stinging
- stinging organelles within cnidocytes called nematocysts
- gastrovascular cavity for eating and expelling waste
- contains classes anthozoa and medusozoa
73
what are the two stages of cnidarians
- polyp: attached to substrate
- medusa: can move
74
describe the class anthozoa
- phylum: cnidaria
- sea anemones and corals
- polyp form only
- mostly sessile
- reproduce sexually or asexually
75
describe the class medusozoa
- phylum: cnidaria
- includes hydrozoa (hydras), scyphozoa (true jellies), and cubozoa (box jellies
76
describe hydrozoans
- hydras
- phylum: cnidaria
- class: medusozoa
- has both polyp and medusa body forms
- polyp stage is often dominant
- asexual reproduction
77
describe scyphozoans
- true jellies
- phylum: cnidaria
- class: medusozoa
- medusa form is dominant; polyp form in reduced
- segmented polyps asexually reproduce
- medusas only reproduce sexually
78
describe cubozoans
- box jellies/sea wasps
- phylum: cnidaria
- class: medusozoa
- no polyps
- four tentacles at each corner
- sexual reproduction only
- have visual sense
- extremely venomous
79
describe the phylum ctenophora
- comb jellies
- similar to cnidarians
- diploblastic
- lack nematocysts
- bioluminescence
80
define diploblastic vs triploblastic
- diploblastic: embryonic endoderm and ectoderm layers
- triploblastic: embryonic endoderm and ectoderm layers AND embryonic mesoderm layers which develop into muscle and bone
81
describe the phylum platyhelminthes
- acoelomate: no coelom
- free-living or parasitic
- hermaphroditic
- first example of cephalization in fossil record
- flatworms: planarians, flukes, and tapeworms
- contains subphylums catenulida and rhabditophora
82
describe the subphylum catenulida
- phylum: platyhelminthes
- 100 species
- flatworms
- free-living
- freshwater
- nonmotile sperm
- single testis
83
describe the subphylum rhabditophora
- phylum: platyhelminthes
- 20,000 species
- includes classes turbellaria, trematoda, cestoda
84
describe the class turbellaria
- phylum: platyhelminthes
- subphylum: rhabditophora
- planarians
- free-living
- predators or scavengers
- have protonephridia for osmoregulation
- ocelli: eyespots, photoreceptive neurons
- protrusible pharynx for eating and expelling feces
85
describe the class trematoda
- phylum: platyhelminthes
- subphylum: rhabditophora
- flukes
- internal parasites
- complex life cycle with multiple hosts
- two suckers to attach to host
86
what is an important differentiation between planarians and flukes
- ocelli: eyes that detect light
- planarians have ocelli
- flukes don't have ocelli
87
define the class cestoda
- phylum: platyhelminthes
- subphylum: rhabditophora
- tapeworms
- internal parasites
- reside in vertebrates
- has proglottids (reproductive segments) and scolex (anchor worm to host)
88
define ecdysozoa
- 1 of 2 major groups of protostomes
- ecdysis: molting
- triploblastic and bilaterally symmetrical
- more ecdysozoan species than all other animals combined
- includes nematoda, tardigrada, arthropoda
89
define the phylum nematoda
- nematodes and roundworms
- ecdysozoa
- pseudocoelomate
- complete digestive tract
- move via thrashing motion; longitudinal muscles
- not hermaphroditic
- aquatic habitats
- parasites of plant and animal tissues
- includes vinegar eels, trichinella, ascaris
90
describe vinegar eels
- phylum: nematoda
- turbatrix aceti
- free-living
- feed on bacteria and yeast
91
describe trichinella
- phylum: nematoda
- parasitic
- responsible for trichinosis from easting infested pork
- creates cysts in pig muscle tissues and human brain
92
describe ascaris
- phylum: nematoda
- tropical parasites
- can lay 200,000+ eggs per day
- infection starts when eggs are ingested
93
describe the phylum tardigrada
- water bears
- ecdysozoa
- closely related to arthropods
- go into stasis in extreme conditions
- only animal known to survive vacuum of space
94
describe the phylum anthropoda
- spiders, insects, centipedes, millipedes, crustaceans
- ecdysozoa
- most numerous and diverse group of animals
- jointed appendages
- segmented body
- exoskeleton composed of chitin
- open circulatory system
- 3 group: myriapoda, chelicerata, pancrustacea
95
describe the subphylum myriapoda
- phylum: arthropoda
- centipedes: carnivorous, 1 pair of legs per segment, poisonous
- millipedes: herbivorous, 2 pairs of legs per segment
- antennae and ocelli
96
describe the subphylum chelicerata
- phylum: arthropoda
- have chelicerae: pincers or fangs
- 2 body regions: cephalothorax and abdomen
- 6 pairs of appendages
- 4 pairs of legs
- breathe using gills or book lungs
- mites, horseshoe crabs, spiders, scorpions, sea spiders, ticks
97
describe the subphylum pancrustacea
- phylum: arthropoda
- heavily segmented
- compound eyes
- mandibles
- 3 body regions: head, thorax, abdomen
- includes hexapoda and crustacea
98
describe the subphylum hexapoda
- phylum: arthropoda
- subphylum: pancrustacea
- insects
- 3 pairs of walking legs
- wings
- feeding appendages
- sensory organs
99
describe the subphylum crustacea
- phylum: arthropoda
- subphylum: pancrustacea
- crabs, lobsters, crayfish, barnacles, shrimp, isopods
- mostly marine
- 2 pairs of sensory antennae
- >3 pairs of walking legs
- gills for respiration
100
describe lophotrochozoans
- 1 of 2 major branches of protostomes
- triploblastic and bilaterally symmetrical
- spiral cell division
- lophophore: ciliated tentacles surrounding mouth
- trochophore: larval stage of annelids and mollusks
- includes mollusca, annelida
101
describe the phylum mollusca
- chitons, snails, clams, cephalopods
- protostomes
- bilaterally symmetrical
- lack segments
- 3 body components: foot (locomotion), visceral mass (internal organs), mantle (secretes shell)
- open circulatory system
- includes classes polyplacophora, gastropoda, bivalvia, cephalopoda
102
describe the class polyplacophora
- phylum: mollusca
- chitons
- segmented shell with 8 plates
- scrapes algae off rocks with radula
103
describe the class gastropoda
- phylum: mollusca
- snails, slugs, nudibranchs
- some exhibit torsion: 180-degree rotation of visceral mass
- some have shells
104
describe the class bivalvia
- phylum: mollusca
- clams, oysters, scallops, mussels
- animal within two hinged halves
- incurrent and excurrent siphons
- 4 oversized gills for filter feeding
105
describe the class cephalopoda
- phylum: mollusca
- nautilus, squid, octopi
- predators
- most advanced invertebrates
- closed circulatory system with 3 hearts
- well-developed eyes
- chromatophores: pigmented cells help them change color
106
describe the phylum annelida
- roundworms with segments
- hermaphroditic
- protostomes
- closed circulatory system: not continuous with external environment
- includes classes errantia and sedentaria
107
describe the class errantia
- phylum: annelida
- free-living
- marine worms
- possess parapodia with chaetae
- well-developed sense organs
108
describe the class sedentaria
- phylum: annelida
- sedentary marine tubeworms, earthworms, leeches
- few to no setae (bristles)
- clitellum: glues them together while mating
109
describe earthworms
- phylum: annelida
- class: sedentaria
- pharynx: pumps dirt into esophagus
- seminal vesicles: male reproductive structures
- aortic arches: blood pumping
- crop and gizzard: store and grind food particles before passing to intestines
- clitellum: mucus-secreting structure allowing gametes exchange
110
describe leeches
- phylum: annelida
- class: sedentaria
- parasitic or predators feeding on small invertebrates
- can remove hematomas
111
what are the four important external elements of anthropods
- segmentation: separation of body cavities and regions
- chitinous exoskeleton: prevents water loss, shed as animal grows
- jointed appendages: quick and agile movements
- advanced sensory systems: receive, process, and respond to information
112
describe the phylum echinodermata
- deuterostomes
- spiny protective skin
- penta-radial symmetry
- water vascular system creating structure, support, and mechanism for movement
- slow-moving
- tube feet
- internal skeleton made of calcite plates
- includes classes crinoidea, echinoidea, holothuroidea, asteroidea, ophiuroidea
113
describe the class crinoidea
- phylum: echinodermata
- sea lilies and feather stars
- sea lilies: sessile
- feather stars: mobile
- attach to coral or sponges
- filter feeders
114
describe the class echinoidea
- phylum: echinodermata
- sea urchins and sand dollars
- unevenly spherical
- lack arms
- move slowly
- aristotles lantern: feeding apparatus with 5 teeth
115
describe the class holothuroidea
- phylum: echinodermata
- sea cucumbers
- elongated shape
- 5 rows of tube feet
- lack spines, reduced endoskeleton
- eviscerate intestines to avoid predators; intestines secrete poison
116
describe the class asteroidea
- phylum: echinodermata
- sea stars
- usually 5 arms
- regeneration
- eviscerate stomachs to consume prey
- most are carnivorous
117
describe the class ophiuroidea
- phylum: echinodermata
- brittle stars and basket stars
- central disc with long flexible arm
- tube feet lack suckers; used for locomotion and sensory perception
118
of germ layers in protostomes
- 3
- triploblastic
119
of germ layers in deuterostomes
- 3
- triploblastic
120
coelom type (schizocoelus or enterocoelus) in protostomes
schizocoelus
121
coelom type (schizocoelus or enterocoelus) in deuterostomes
enterocoelus
122
body cavity type in protostomes
- coelomate
- acoelomate
- pseudocoelomate
123
body cavity type in deuterostomes
coelomate
124
cell fate (determinant or indeterminant) in protostomes
determinant
125
cell fate (determinant or indeterminant) in deuterostomes
indeterminant
126
blastopore fate in protostomes
mouth
127
blastospore fate in deuterostomes
anus
128
what are the 3 phyla of deuterostomes
- hemichordata
- echinodermata
- chordata
129
what 5 traits do all chordates exhibit at some point in their development
- notochord
- dorsal hollow nerve cord
- pharyngeal gill slits
- post-anal tail
- endostyle/thyroid gland
130
define notochord
- longitudinal, flexible support rod running the length of the chordate
- originates from mesoderm
- typically runs between the gut and the nerve cord
- evolved to be intervertebral disks in vertebrates
131
define dorsal hollow nerve cord
- rolled nervous tissue
- formed by ectoderm
- usually becomes brain and spinal cord
- found dorsal to the notochord
132
define pharyngeal gill slits
- grooves on the side of the embryonic pharynx
- develops into gills or structures of the inner ear and neck
- originally used to filter food; now used for gas exchange
133
define post-anal tail
- present during embryonic development; may be lost in later stages
- contains skeletal elements and muscles
134
define endostyle/thyroid gland
- longitudinal groove of ciliated cells in the pharynx
- secretes mucus for filter feeding in invertebrates
- develops into thyroid gland in vertebrates
- plays role in metabolism
135
are chordates and vertebrates the same thing
- no
- chordata is a phylum
- vertebrata is subphylum
136
what subphylums are in the phylum chordata
- vertebrata
- cephalochordata
- urochordata
137
describe the subphylum cephalochordata
- phylum: chordata
- sea lancelets
- retain all 5 chordate characteristics unmodified throughout their life
- NOT vertebrates
- marine burrowing filter feeders
- transcutaneous respiration
138
describe the subphylum urochordata
- phylum: chordata
- sea squirts (tunicates)
- NOT vertebrates
- most primitive chordate group
- larvae have all 5 chordate characteristics; notochord, nerve cord, and tail are lost as adult
- filter feeders
- outer skin made of tunicin
139
describe the subphylum vertebrata
- phylum: chordata
-vertebrates
- have skull, backbone, endoskeleton, closed circulatory system, and respiratory system
- 2 superclasses: agnatha and gnathostomata
140
describe the super classes agnathans
- subphylum: vertebrata
- no jaw
- includes class myxini, petromyzontida
141
describe the class myxini
- subphylum: vertebrata
- superclass: agnathans
- hagfish
- no backbone
- ring of tentacles around their mouth
- eat carcasses at the bottom of the sea
- excrete lots of mucus as a defense mechanism
142
describe the class petromyzontida
- subphylum: vertebrata
- superclass: agnathans
- lampreys
- skull and backbone made of cartilage
- parasitic to fish
- teeth
143
describe the super class gnathostomata
- subphylum: vertebrata
- jaws
- two sets of paired appendages
- includes class chondricthyes, osteichthyes
144
describe the class chondricthyes
- subphylum: vertebrata
- superclass: gnathostomata
- sharks and rays
- full skeleton made of cartilage
- placoid scales made of mesoderm tissues
145
describe the class osteichthyes
- subphylum: vertebrata
- superclass: gnathostomata
- bony fish and tetrapods
- all have complete skeletons made of bone
- includes 6 classes: actinopterygii, actinistia, dipnoi, amphibia, reptilia, mammalia
146
describe the subclass actinopterygii
- subphylum: vertebrata
- superclass: gnathostomata
- class: osteichthyes
- ray-finned fishes
- rays in fins with tissue in between
- swim bladder
- carp, perch, bass, tuna, etc
147
define the term sarcopterygii
- meaning having bones in fins or limbs
- classes actinistia, dipnoi, amphibia, reptilia, mammalia
148
describe the subclass actinistia
- subphylum: vertebrata
- superclass: gnathostomata
- class: osteichthyes
- sarcopterygii
- bones in fins
- most members are extinct
149
describe the subclass dipnoi
- subphylum: vertebrata
- superclass: gnathostomata
- class: osteichthyes
- sarcopterygii
- lungfishes
- use most gills and lungs for respiration
- can walk on fins out of water for short periods of time
- breathe air at surface into lungs
150
describe the subclass amphibia
- subphylum: vertebrata
- superclass: gnathostomata
- class: osteichthyes
- sarcopterygii
- tetrapods
- land and water
- gas exchange through moist skin
- eggs laid in water and fertilized externally; not amniotic eggs
151
define amniota
- tetrapods adapted to dry environemnts
- thicker skin
- well-developed lungs
- internal fertilization (generally)
- amniotic egg
- reptilia and mammalia
152
describe the amniotic egg
- adaptation for living exclusively on dry land
- amnion: fluid filled membrane that protects embryo
- allantois: membrane for gas exchange
- yolk sac: nourishes embryo
- chorion: encloses embryo
- shell: prevents desiccation
- laid externally in most reptiles
- retained internally in most mammals
153
describe the subclass reptilia
- subphylum: vertebrata
- superclass: gnathostomata
- class: osteichthyes
- sarcopterygii
- tetrapods
- snakes, lizards, turtles, birds
- cold-blooded
- have amniotic egg
- touch skin with epidermal scales
154
describe the subclass mammalia
- subphylum: vertebrata
- superclass: gnathostomata
- class: osteichthyes
- sarcopterygii
- tetrapods
- endothermic: regulate own internal temperature
- most have live-born offspring
- hair or fur
- 4 chambered hearts
- produce milk with mammary glands
155
describe the types of glands on mammals
- sebaceous: produce lipid sebum, provides water resistance and lubrication
- eccrine: sweat glands
- apocrine: scent glands
- mammary: produce milk
156
describe a pig trachea
- airway
- passage to lungs
- exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen
157
describe a pig esophagus
- transports food from mouth to stomach
- behind trachea
158
describe a pig larynx
- voice box
- pig snorting and vocalizations
159
describe a pig thyroid gland
- production of hormones associated with metabolism
160
describe a pig thymus gland
- immune system: T-cell production
161
describe a pig diaphragm
- thin flap of muscle
- below the lungs
- muscle that pulls lungs down so air will come in
162
describe a pig lung
- behind sternum
- exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen
163
describe a pig heart
- behind sternum
- pressure generator to move blood through arteries and veins
164
describe a pig stomach
- where food is emptied from the esophagus
- where enzymatic digestion begins with pepsin
165
describe a pig liver
- bile production
- production of blood proteins
- detoxification of various chemicals
166
describe a pig gallbladder
- stores and releases bile which emulsifies fats
167
describe a pig pancreas
- makes hormones and digestive enzymes
168
describe a pig small intestine
- takes food from stomach
169
describe a pig large intestine
- takes food form small intestine
- enzymatic digestion continues
- absorption of monomers into the bloodstream
170
functions of the cardiovascular system
- circulation of blood
- regulation of blood pressure
- distribution of gases, nutrients, metabolic wastes, hormones, and blood proteins
171
what types of organisms have 4-chambered hearts
- warm-blooded
- higher vertebrates
- from birds to humans
172
where does each side of the heart distribute blood to
- right: to the lungs or pulmonary system
- left: to the body
173
how many chambers does a fish, amphibian, and reptile/mammal heart have
- fish: 2
- amphibian: 3
- reptile/mammal: 4
174
define arteries, veins, and capillaries
- arteries: carry blood away from the heart
- veins: carry blood back to the heart
- capillaries: thin walled to allow for diffusion of gases, nutrients, wastes, and hormones
175
define systole and diastole
- systole: contraction
- diastole: relaxation
176
describe the flow of blood through the body
- blood enters heart through inferior and superior vena cava
- atria contract and blood moves from right atria to right ventricle
- ventricles contract and blood moves into pulmonary artery
- blood travels to the lungs for gas exchange
- blood returns via pulmonary veins into the left atria
- atria contract and blood moves from left atria to left ventricle
- ventricles contract and blood moves into aorta
- blood travels through the body oxygenating tissues
177
define respiration
- inhalation: flexes diaphragm and intercostal muscles so air comes in
- exhalation: intercostal muscles relax and air is exhaled
178
define blood pressure
- amount of pressure within arteries and veins
- generated by the heart and by contraction of skeletal muscles
179
which part of the brain measures blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration rate
- medulla oblongata
180
how is cardiac muscle movement detected
- pulse
- blood pressure
181
what is used to measure blood pressure
- sphygmomanometer
182
what does the electrical activity of the heart do
- causes heart to contract or beat
183
where does the red, black, and green electrode go on an EKG
- red: positive; left wrist
- black: negative; right wrist
- green: ground; right ankle
184
what should be removed before starting an EKG
- jewelry
185
define the p-wave, QRS complex, and t-wave on an EKG
- p-wave: atrial contraction
- QRS complex: ventricular contraction and atrial relaxation
- t-wave: ventricular relaxation
186
what is the equation for mean arterial blood pressure (MAP)
- diastolic + (systolic + diastolic)/3
187
define excretion
- process of getting rid of unnecessary wastes
188
what are the main excretory organs
- skin
- liver
- colon
- kidneys
189
function of kidneys
- filtering waste out of blood which ends up as urine
- maintaining blood volume and pH
- regulating electrolyte balance and blood pressure
- make hormone erythropoietin (EPO) which helps to make RBCs
190
how much blood do kidneys receive per minute
- almost as much as the brain does
191
why are ventricles so much larger than atria
- they have to pump the blood further
- left ventricle is largest because it has to pump blood all around the body
192
what is the purpose of heart valves
- prevent backflow of blood
193
define dialysis
- person connected to machine that filters blood for them
194
which cardiac event is not seen on the EKG and why
- relaxation of atria is not seen
- ventricles are bigger so ventricular contraction masks atrial relaxation
195
what are the two divisions of the nervous system
- central nervous system
- peripheral nervous system
196
nervous system function
- take in, process, and respond to stimuli from the external environment
197
what is in the central nervous system
- brain
- spinal cord
198
what is in the peripheral nervous system
- cranial nerves
- spinal nerves
199
what are the three parts of the brain and what do they contain
- forebrain: olfactory bulb and cerebrum
- midbrain: optic lobe
- hindbrain: cerebellum
200
location and function of the cerebrum
- in forebrain
- responsible for thought, conscious activities, perception of external world, memory, and judgement
201
location and function of the corpus callosum
- in forebrain
- connects lift and right hemispheres
- larger in females allows for better multitasking
202
location and function of the olfactory bulb
- in forebrain
- sense of smell
203
location and function of ventricles in the brain
- in forebrain
- cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid
204
location and function of the pineal gland
- in forebrain
- part of epithalamus
- produces melatonin
205
location and function of the diencephalon
- in forebrain
- thalamus: integrating movements
- hypothalamus: hunger, sex drive, primitive emotions
206
location and function of the pituitary gland
- in forebrain
- connected to hypothalamus
- makes hormones associated with metabolic activity, reproductive activity, and regulation of water volume balance
207
function of the midbrain
- wakefulness
- four lobes called corpora quadrigeminy: visual and auditory reflexes
208
location and function of the cerebellum
- in hindbrain
- movement, posture, equilibrium
209
location and function of the medulla oblongata
- in hindbrain
- involuntary homeostatic functions: blood pressure, respiration, heart rate
210
location and function of the pons
- in hindbrain
- allows signals to be transmitted from one side of the cerebellum to the other
211
define the two types of matter in the spinal cord
- gray matter: butterfly shaped area containing shot nerve fibers, interneurons, and motor neuron cell bodies
- white matter: long fibers that carry impulses up and down the spinal cord
212
define nerve
- bundle of neurons
213
define neuron
- one cell
- specialized cell conducts nerve impulses
- basic unit fo the nervous system
214
explain the structure of a neuron
- dendrites: receive messages
- soma: cell body, contains nucleus, site of cellular biosynthesis
- axon: conducts nerve impulses
215
define synapse
- gap between two neurons
- signals are passed between two cells via neurotransmitters
216
how are neurotransmitters released from the pre-synaptic membrane
- exocytosis
- neurotransmitters inside vesicles that fuse with the membrane and send them out of the cell
217
explain the three types of neurons
- sensory neurons: pick up information from the environment and relay to CNS, in PNS
- interneurons: process information in CNS, not in PNS
- motor neurons: carry information from CNS to cause a response, in PNS
218
describe the compound eye
- made of independent visual units called ommatidia
- each ommatidia has its own photoreceptors
219
describe the structure of a camera eye
- cornea: transparent portion of sclera, allows light into the eye
- iris: controls amount of light entering eye, gives color
- aqueous and vitreous chambers: fluid filled cavities that support the eye and refract light
- sclera: outermost layer, muscle attachment
- choroid: middle layer, provides blood supply
- retina: innermost layer, sensory layer with rods and cones
220
describe how camera eyes are used to see
- light enters through pupil
- lens focuses light on the retina
- rods and cones transmit nerve impulses to the optic nerve
- brain processes visual information
221
describe rods and cones
- rods: light sensitive, sense dim light, found more in periphery, night
- cones: bright light, fine detail, color, concentrated in center
222
explain what the blind spot is
- center area of retina with no rods or cones
- where optic nerve fibers converge into optic disk
223
define tapetum lucidum
- iridescent portion of retina
- dense region of rods allowing animal to see well in lowlight conditions
224
describe how we hear
- sound waves contact tympanic membrane (eardrum)
- sound waves passed to inner ear bones
- small hairs in the cochlea send nerve impulses to the brain which interprets the impulses as sounds
225
define the semicircular canals of the ear
- fill with fluid
- allow organism to perceive position, direction, and speed
226
describe gustation
- taste
- taste buds in tongue used for chemoreception, needs saliva to work
227
define chemoreception
- detection of chemicals by receptors associated with the nervous system
- sense of taste and smell
228
describe olfaction
- smell
- chemoreception
- chemicals enter through the nose and bind to the nasal epithelium
229
describe the sense of touch
- sensory receptors sense changes in environment and synapse with sensory neurons
- meissner's corpuscles: located near skin surface, sense light and touch
- pacinian corpuscle: locate beneath skin, sense deep touch and pressure
230
define electroencephalogram (EEG
- measures electrical activities of the brain
231
describe the four types of brain waves
- beta: awake with mental activity
- alpha: awake and resting
- theta: sleeping
- delta: deep sleep
232
where are each electrodes placed for an EEG
- red: above right eyebrow
- green: above left eyebrow
- black: back of the head
