LAB FINAL Flashcards
(415 cards)
1
Q
Hypothalamus
A
serves as the main control center of the endocrine and autonomic nervous system being in charge of regulating vital bodily functions such as body temperature, fluid balance, food intake, sleep awareness, sexual arousal, memory, emotional expression, and control of stress levels
2
Q
GnHR (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
A
TARGET - anterior pituitary gland
FUNCTION - stimulates secretion of FSH and LH
3
Q
PRH (prolactin releasing hormone)
A
TARGET - anterior pituitary gland
FUNCTION - stimulates release of prolactin
4
Q
Anterior Pituitary Gland (Adenohypophysis)
A
regulates metabolism, growth, sexual maturation, reproduction, blood pressure, breastfeeding, and the immune response
5
Q
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
A
TARGET - ovaries and testes
FUNCTION - females: promotes development of ovarian follicle and estrogen secretion - males: promotes spermatogenesis
6
Q
LH (luteinizing hormone)
A
TARGET - ovaries and testes
FUNCTION - females: promotes maturation of the ovarian follicle and progesterone secretion - males: promotes secretion of testosterone
7
Q
PRL (prolactin)
A
TARGET - mammary glands
FUNCTION - stimulates milk production and secretion
8
Q
Posterior Pituitary Gland (Neurohypophysis)
A
stores two neurohormones coming from the hypothalamus - NOT an endocrine gland
9
Q
Oxytocin
A
TARGET - uterus and mammary glands
FUNCTION - stimulus powerful uterine contractions during birth and milk ejection in lactating mothers
10
Q
ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
A
TARGET - kidneys
FUNCTION - water conservation and electrolyte balance by stimulating the kidneys to reabsorb more water, reducing urine output
11
Q
Adrenal (Suprarenal) Gland - Cortex
A
outermost region of the gland - responsible for producing hormones that regulate blood pressure, glucose blood levels, and sexual characteristics
12
Q
Mineralocorticoids - Aldosterone
A
TARGET - kidneys
FUNCTION - regulates the reabsorption of water altering blood pressure in the body
13
Q
Gonadocorticoids - Androgens and Estrogen
A
TARGET - many
FUNCTION - regulates the development of secondary sexual characteristics
14
Q
Adrenal (Suprarenal) Gland - Medulla
A
inner region of the gland, responsible for secreting two hormones that initiate and regulate the fight or flight response
15
Q
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
A
TARGET - many
FUNCTION - fight or flight in response to stress
16
Q
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
A
TARGET - many
FUNCTION - fight or flight in response to stress
17
Q
Female Gonads: Ovaries
A
paired female gonads located in the true pelvic cavity
18
Q
Estrogens
A
TARGET - many
FUNCTION - growth and development of the female reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics
19
Q
Progesterone
A
TARGET - many
FUNCTION - prepares the endometrium for implantation (potential pregnancy)
20
Q
Male Gonades: Testes
A
paired male gonads located in the perineal region
21
Q
Testosterone
A
TARGET - many
FUNCTION - growth and development of male reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics
22
Q
Pineal Gland
A
secretes melatonin to regulate the sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm)
23
Q
Melatonin
A
TARGET - many
FUNCTION - regulates sleep-wake cycle, inhibits reproductive functions, and protects against damage by free radicals
24
Q
Thyroid Gland
A
regulates metabolism and blood calcium levels
25
TH - T4 and T3
TARGET - all cells
FUNCTION - regulates metabolism and cellular oxidation
26
Calcitonin
TARGET - bones
FUNCTION - regulates calcium deposition in bones
27
Parathyroid Gland
regulation of calcium levels in the bones and blood
28
PTH (parathyroid hormone)
TARGET - kidneys and bones
FUNCTION - regulates blood calcium levels
29
Thymus
maturation of T cells - immune response (stimulates production of antibodies)
30
Thymulin, Thymosins, Thymopoietin
TARGET - thymus
FUNCTION - development of T cells and immune response
31
Pancreas
regulates metabolism of glucose, proteins, and lipids
32
Insulin (Beta Cells)
TARGET - many
FUNCTION - transport glucose into cells
33
Glucagon (Alpha Cells)
TARGET - liver
FUNCTION - release glucose into blood by breaking down glycogen stores
34
Lymph
composed mainly of water
carries immune response factors and clears out pathogens
35
Lymphatic Vasculature
1. lymphatic capillaries
2. lymphatic vessels
3. lymphatic trunks
4. right lymphatic duct
5. thoracic duct
6. cisterna chyli
36
Lymphatic Capillaries
collect interstitial fluid from tissues, forming lymph
37
Lymphatic Vessels
divided into superficial and deep
receive lymphatic fluid from lymphatic capillaries and drain it into the lymphatic trunks
38
Lymphatic Trunks
receive lymphatic fluid from the lymphatic vessels in their respective body regions and drain it into lymphatic ducts
39
Right Lymphatic Duct
not present in everyone
drains lymphatic fluid from the right superior limb and right side of the head and chest into the venous circulation via the right brachiocephalic vein
40
Thoracic Duct
drains lymphatic fluid from the rest of the body into the venous circulation via the left brachiocephalic vein
41
Cisterna Chyli
receives lymphatic drainage from the abdominopelvic regions and lower limbs
42
Primary Lymphatic Organs
formation and development of lymphocytes
1. bone marrow
2. thymus
43
Bone Marrow
in the epiphysis of long bones, contains stem cells
production of blood cells and storage of fats
44
Thymus
site of maturation and selection of T-lymphocytes
45
Secondary Lymphatic Organs
associated with antibody formation, lymphatic proliferation, and antigen presentation
1. spleen
2. lymph nodes
3. pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)
4. palatine tonsils (tonsils)
5. lingual tonsils
6. vermiform appendix
46
Spleen
largest of lymphatic connected to bloodstream
site for T-lymphocyte proliferation and maturation, filtering and recycling of damaged red blood cells, and immune surveillance
47
Lymph Nodes
monitor the lymph coming from lymphatic vessels and phagocytose foreign matter/cell debris and mount the immune response when necessary
48
Pharyngeal Tonsils (adenoids)
first line of defense against pathogens that enter the body through the nose and mouth
49
Palatine Tonsils (tonsils)
first line of defense against pathogens that enter the body through the nose and mouth
50
Lingual Tonsils
first line of defense against pathogens that enter the body through the nose and mouth
51
Vermiform Appendix
clonal selection, composed of lymphoid tissue, houses commensal bacteria
52
External Nose
entrance and exit for air for the respiratory system
53
Nasal Cavity
filters, warms, and moistens incoming air - acts as a resonance chamber for voice production
1. nasal vestibule
2. nasal septum
3. superior, middle, and inferior nasal concha
4. nasal meatus - superior, middle, and inferior
5. posterior nasal apertures
6. hard palate
7. soft palate
8. paranasal sinuses - frontal, maxillary, sphenoidal, ethmoidal air cells
54
Nasal Vestibule
filters coarse particles from the air
55
Nasal Septum
decides the nasal cavity into right and left sides
56
Superior and Middle Nasal Concha
increase the surface area of the mucosa in the cavity, increase air turbulence to help trap particles in the mucus, and warm the incoming air
57
Inferior Nasal Meatus
helps from the middle and inferior nasal meatuses
58
Nasal Meatus - Superior, Middle, and Inferior
control airflow direction, humidification, heating, and filtering or the air inhaled through the nose
59
Posterior Nasal Apertures
provide exit for the air into the nasopharynx
60
Hard Palate
form the floor of the nasal cavity and roof of the oral cavity
61
Soft Palate
aids in swallowing and breathing and enables the pronunciation of some consonants
62
Paranasal Sinuses -- Frontal, Maxillary, Sphenoidal, Ethmoidal Air Cells
resonance chambers for speech and warming of incoming air
63
Pharynx
serves as a muscular passage for air, food, and fluids from the nose and mouth to the lungs and stomach
1. nasopharynx
a. pharyngotympanic tube
2. oropharynx
3. laryngopharynx
64
Nasopharynx
passage for air from the nasal cavity into the rest of the oropharynx
tonsils provide protection against pathogens
65
Pharyngotympanic Tube
connects nasopharynx to the middle ear
66
Oropharynx
passage for air and swallowed foods
tonsils provide protection against pathogens
67
Laryngopharynx
passage for air and swallowed foods
68
Larynx
serves as a passage for air, voice production box, and prevents food from passing into the other regions of the lower respiratory tract
1. thyroid cartilage
2. cricoid cartilage
3. arytenoid cartilage
4. corniculate cartilage
5. epiglottis
6. vestibular ligament and fold
7. vocal ligament and fold
8. glottis
9. rima glottidis
10. thyrohyoid ligament
11. cricothyroid ligament
69
Thyroid Cartilage
forms the framework of the larynx
70
Cricoid Cartilage
attaches the larynx to the trachea
71
Arytenoid Cartilage
anchor the vocal folds
72
Corniculate Cartilage
form part of the posterior wall of the pharynx
73
Epiglottis
forms lid over the larynx during swallowing and prevents food from entering the trachea
74
Vestibular Ligament and Fold
protect the vital folds and help close the glottis when swallowing
75
Vocal Ligament and Fold
vibrate with expired air for sound production
true structures that produce sound as air passes over them
76
Glottis
vocal apparatus of the larynx
77
Rima Glottidis
vocal apparatus of the larynx
78
Thyrohyoid Ligament
facilitates the superior movement of the larynx during swallowing
79
Cricothyroid Ligament
connects the cricoid and thyroid cartilages preventing them from moving apart from each other
80
Lower Respiratory System
1. trachea
a. cartilaginous tracheal rings
2. right and left primary bronchi
3. secondary bronchi
4. tertiary bronchi
5. bronchioles
6. respiratory bronchioles
7. alveolar duct
8. alveolar sac
9. alveoli
10. respiratory membrane
81
Trachea
transports air in and out of the lungs during breathing and protects the lower respiratory tract by warming and moistening the air
82
Cartilaginous Tracheal Rings
reinforce the trachea to keep it open and maintain its posterior open surface, allowing the esophagus to expand when swelling a large bolus of food
83
Right and Left Primary Bronchi
transport air to and from the lungs
84
Secondary Bronchi
transport air to and from the lungs
85
Tertiary Bronchi
transport air to and from the lungs
86
Bronchioles
transport air to and from the lungs
87
Respiratory Bronchioles
transport air to and from the lungs
88
Alveolar Duct
transport air to and from the lungs
89
Alveolar Sac
contains pulmonary alveoli
90
Alveoli
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide by rapid diffusion and secrete surfactant to prevent alveoli from collapsing during exhalation
91
Respiratory Membrane
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide by rapid diffusion and secrete surfactant to prevent alveoli from collapsing during exhalation
92
Lungs - Right and Left
aids in inhalation and exhalation processes and drives the exchange of carbon dioxide for oxygen to drive all bodily functions
93
General Structures and Regions of the Lung
1. Hilum
2. Apex
3. Base
4. Costal Surface
94
Hilum
site through which neurovasculature, lymphatic vessels, and airway passages enter and exit the lung
95
Apex
region of the lung
96
Base
region of the lung
97
Costal Surface
region of the lung
98
Right Lung
1. lobes
a. superior
b. middle
c. inferior
2. horizontal fissure
3. oblique fissure
99
Horizontal Fissure
deep groove separating the superior and middle lobes
100
Oblique Fissure
deep grove separating the middle and inferior lobes
101
Left Lung
1. Lobes
a. superior
b. inferior
2. oblique fissure
3. cardiac notch
4. linguala
102
Oblique Fissure
deep groove separating the superior and inferior lobes
103
Cardiac Notch
concave region on the medial surface to accommodate the heart
104
Lingula
tone like projection on medial surface of the superior lobe
105
Pleura
double layered serous membrane that envelops each lung for protection and lubrication
1. parietal pleura
2. visceral pleura
3. pleural cavity
106
Parietal Pleura
protects the lungs, anchors them to the thoracic cavity and diaphragm to reduce friction during lung movements
107
Visceral Pleura
protects the lungs, anchors them to the thoracic cavity and diaphragm to reduce friction during lung movements
108
Pleural Cavity
protects the lungs, anchors them to the thoracic cavity and diaphragm to reduce friction during lung movements
109
Muscles of Respiration
1. diaphragm
2. external intercostals
3. internal intercostals
4. sternocleidomastoid
5. scalenes
6. pectoralis minor
7. serratus anterior
8. external oblique
9. internal oblique
10. rectus abdominis
110
Diaphragm
NERVE - phrenic nerve
CONTRACTION - inhalation
RELAXATION - passive exhalation
111
External Intercostals
NERVE - intercostal nerves
CONTRACTION - inhalation
RELAXATION - passive exhalation
112
Internal Intercostals
NERVE - intercostal nerves
CONTRACTION - assists relaxed diaphragm and external intercostals during forced exhalation
113
Sternocleidomastoid
NERVE - spinal accessory nerve (CN XI)
CONTRACTION - assists contracted diaphragm and external intercostals during forced inhalation by elevating the ribs and increasing thoracic cage size
114
Scalenes
NERVE - anterior rami of cervical spinal nerves
CONTRACTION - assists contracted diaphragm and external intercostals during forced inhalation by elevating the ribs and increasing thoracic cage size
115
Pectoralis Minor
NERVE - medial and lateral pectoral nerves
CONTRACTION - assists contracted diaphragm and external intercostals during forced inhalation by elevating the ribs and increasing thoracic cage size
116
Serratus Anterior
NERVE - long thoracic nerve
CONTRACTION - assists contracted diaphragm and external intercostals during forced inhalation by elevating the ribs and increasing thoracic cage size
117
External Oblique
NERVE - anterior rami of thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves
CONTRACTION - assist relaxed diaphragm and external intercostals during forced exhalation
118
Internal Oblique
NERVE - anterior rami of thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves
CONTRACTION - assist relaxed diaphragm and external intercostals during forced exhalation
119
Rectus Abdominis
NERVE - anterior rami of thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves
CONTRACTION - assist relaxed diaphragm and external intercostals during forced exhalation
120
COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)
a group of lung diseases that block airflow and make it difficult to breathe
121
PCOS (polycystic ovarian syndrome)
hormonal disorder causing enlarged ovaries with small cysts on the outer edges
122
Oral Cavity
1. labia (lips)
2. labial frenulum
3. oral vestibule
4. cheeks
5. oral cavity
6. hard palate
7. soft palate
a. uvula
8. palatoglossal arch
9. tongue
10. lingual frenulum
123
Labia (Lips)
open and close the anterior opening of the oral cavity
formed by orbicularis oris muscle covered by skin externally and mucosa internally
124
Labial Frenulum
connects the inner lip to the gums
125
Oral Vestibule
receives salivary secretions from the parotid glands and distributes it to the oral cavity proper
126
Cheeks
form the lateral walls of the oral cavity
muscles of facial expression and mastication
127
Oral Cavity
entrance to the digestive tract and initiation of digestion by forming the alimentary bolus and moving into the oropharynx
128
Hard Palate
forms the roof of the oral cavity
129
Soft Palate
aids in taste, swallowing, breathing, and speech
130
Uvula
helps close the nasal and pharyngeal passages
131
Palatoglossal Arch
connects the tongue to the soft palate
132
Palatopharyngeal Arch
connects the soft palate to the oropharynx
133
Tongue
forms the floor of the oral cavity
aids in different important processes such as mastication, speech, and taste
134
Lingual Frenulum
secures the inferior surface of the tongue to the floor of the mouth, stabilizing it during swallowing and speech
135
Pharynx
two layers of skeletal muscle lined with mucosa that propel food inferiorly into the esophagus
1. oropharynx
2. laryngopharynx
136
Esophagus
serves as a food and fluid passageway into the stomach without any digestive or absorptive functions
1. lower esophageal sphincter
137
Lower Esophageal Sphincter
protects the esophagus from highly acidic reflux of gastric contents
138
Stomach
site for temporary storage and mechanical/chemical digestion of food, transforming the food bolus into chyme
1. cardia
2. fundus
3. body
4. pylorus
a. pyloric orifice
b. pyloric sphincter
5. lesser curvature of the stomach
6. greater curvature of the stomach
7. gastric rugae (folds)
139
Cardia
inflow region of the stomach
140
Fundus
dome-shaped dilation of the stomach
141
Body
largest region of the stomach
142
Pylorus
funnel-shaped outflow region of the stomach connection to the duodenum
143
Pyloric Orifice
regulates the passage of gastric contents into the duodenum
thickening of smooth muscle
144
Pyloric Sphincter
regulates the rate of gastric emptying into the duodenum
ring of smooth muscle
145
Lesser Curvature of the Stomach
point of attachment for the lesser momentum connecting the stomach to the liver
146
Greater Curvature of the Stomach
point of attachment for the greater omentum
147
Gastric Rugae (Folds)
increases the surface area of mucosa in the stomach and secretes acids and enzymes
148
Small Intestine
1. duodenum
2. jejunum
3. ileum
4. circular folds (plicae circulares)
5. ileocecal valve
149
Duodenum
initial portion of SI - extends from pyloric sphincter for about 10 inches, curving around the head of the pancreas
site where most of the digestive absorption of nutrients and water occurs in the gastrointestinal tract
150
Jejunum
middle portion of SI -- continuous with the duodenum and ileum
site where most of the digestive absorption of nutrients and water occurs in the gastrointestinal tract
151
Ileum
terminal portion of the SI
site where most of the digestive absorption of nutrients and water occurs in the gastrointestinal tract
152
Circular Folds (Plicae Circulares)
deep transverse folds in SI
force chyme to spiral and slow down as it passes through the small intestine, increasing absorption of nutrients
153
Ileocecal Valve
sphincter created by the protrusion of smooth muscle of the ileum into the lumen of the cecum
controls the passage of contents from the ileum to the cecum
154
Large Intestine
responsible for absorption of electrolytes and water, formation, temporary storage, and elimination of feces, and housing the gut microflora
1. cecum
a. vermiform appendix
2. ascending colon
3. right colic (hepatic) flexure
4. transverse colon
5. left colic (splenic) flexure
6. descending colon
7. sigmoid colon
8. rectum
9. anal canal
10. internal anal sphincter
11. external anal sphincter
12. anus
13. teniae coli
14. haustra
15. epiploic (omental) appendages
155
Cecum
first portion of LI
site for temporary storage of intestinal contents and fluid and electrolyte reabsorption
156
Ascending Colon
fluid and electrolyte reabsorption, formation of fecal matter
157
Right Colic (Hepatic) Flexure
fluid and electrolyte reabsorption, formation of fecal matter
158
Transverse Colon
fluid and electrolyte reabsorption, formation of fecal matter
159
Left Colic (Splenic) Flexure
fluid and electrolyte reabsorption, formation of fecal matter
160
Descending Colon
fluid and electrolyte reabsorption, formation of fecal matter
161
Sigmoid Colon
fluid and electrolyte reabsorption, formation of fecal matter
162
Rectum
temporary storage of fecal matter and defecation
163
Anal Canal
temporary storage of fecal matter and defecation
164
Internal Anal Sphincter
thickening of smooth muscle
temporary storage of fecal matter and defecation
165
External Anal Sphincter
skeletal muscle
temporary storage of fecal matter and defecation
166
Anus
temporary storage of fecal matter and defecation
167
Teniae Coli
3 longitudinal muscle bands of the muscular external layer of the large intestine
168
Haustra
small pocket-like sacs created by the tensions caused by the teniae coli bands
169
Epiploic (Omental) Appendages
fat-filled pouches of visceral peritoneum hanging from the surface of the large intestine sometimes absent from the cecum and rectum
170
Peritoneum
serous membrane lining the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity and the organs within
1. visceral peritoneum
2. parietal peritoneum
3. peritoneal cavity
171
Visceral Peritoneum
direct contact with abdominopelvic organs
protects abdominopelvic organs and reduces friction while organs move
172
Parietal Peritoneum
lining the inner wall of the abdominopelvic cavity
protects abdominopelvic organs and reduces friction while organs move
173
Peritoneal Cavity
space between layers filled with serous peritoneal fluid
protects abdominopelvic organs and reduces friction while organs move
174
Peritoneal Membrans
formed by multiple layers/folds of parietal peritoneum
1. greater omentum
2. lesser omentum
3. mesentery
a. mesentery proper
b. mesoappendix
c. transverse mesocolon
d. sigmoid mesocolon
175
Greater Omentum
from greater curvature of the stomach and first portion of the peritoneum hanging over the transverse colon, jejunum, and ileum
prevents parietal and visceral peritoneal layers from adhering to each other
176
Lesser Omentum
from the lesser curvature of the stomach and first part of the duodenum to the liver - divided into the hepatoduodenal and hepatogastric ligaments
separates the greater sac from the lesser sac of the peritoneal cavity
177
Mesentery
anchors organs from the posterior abdominal wall and carries neurovasculature to them
178
Mesentery Proper
anchors the small intestine to the posterior abdominal wall
179
Mesoappendix
anchors the vermiform appendix to the posterior abdominal wall
180
Transverse Mesocolon
anchors the transverse colon to the posterior abdominal wall
181
Sigmoid Mesocolon
anchors the sigmoid colon to the posterior abdominal wall
182
Divisions of the Peritoneal Cavity
1. lesser sac (omental bursa)
2. greater sac
3. epiploic (omental) forament (forament of Winslow)
183
Lesser Sac (Omental Bursa)
provides space for movement of the stomach
184
Greater Sac
space from diaphragm to the pelvic cavity
185
Epiploic (Omental) Foramen
communicates the lesser and greater sacs
186
Retroperitoneal Organs
1. pancreas
2. kindeys
3. adrenal glands
4. spleen
5. descending abdominal aorta
6. descending and ascending colon
7. ureters
187
Intraperitoneal Organs
1. esophagus
2. stomach
3. liver
4. duodenum
5. jejunum
6. ileum
7. cecum
8. vermiform appendix
9. transverse colon
10. sigmoid colon
11. rectum
12. inferior mesenteric vein
188
Teeth Classification
1. incisors
2. canines
3. premolars
4. molars
189
Incisors
shearing/biting
190
Canines
tearing
191
Premolars
grinding
192
Molars
grinding
193
Teeth Anatomy
1. crown
2. neck
3. root
4. periodontal ligament
5. dentin
6. pulp cavity
7. root canal
194
Crown
superior part of the tooth above the gingiva
covered by enamel
195
Neck
region between the crown and root
covered by cement
196
Root
inferior region of the tooth deep to the gingiva embedded in the bones
covered by cement
197
Periodontal Ligament
small ligament surrounding the root of teeth
provides attachment to the tooth socket and cushioning
198
Dentin
material composing the build of the tooth deep into the enamel and cement layers surrounding the pulp cavity
199
Pulp Cavity
space deep in the crown and neck of the tooth filled with pulp and blood vessels and nerves
pulp forms and provides nutrients to the dentin
200
Root Canal
distal extension of the pulp cavity inside the neck and root of the tooth
passage containing blood vessels and nerves entering and leaving a tooth
201
Salivary Glands
1. parotid glands
2. submandibular glands
3. sublingual glands
202
Parotid Glands
secretes saliva to start the chemical digestions or food in the oral cavity, forming and lubricating the bolus
203
Submandibular Glands
secretes saliva to start the chemical digestions or food in the oral cavity, forming and lubricating the bolus
204
Sublingual Glands
secretes saliva to start the chemical digestions or food in the oral cavity, forming and lubricating the bolus
205
Liver
produces bile that emulsifies fats, breaking them into small droplets to help their absorption - stores glycogen and fat-soluble vitamins, detoxifies the blood, and synthesizes proteins
1. lobes
2. falciform ligament
3. round ligament of the liver
4. porta hepatis
5. hepatocytes
6. portal triad
206
Lobes
right, left, caudate, quadrate
207
Falciform Ligament
peritoneal reflection
attaches the liver to the diaphragm and anterior abdominal wall
208
Round Ligament of the Liver
located on free edge of the falciform ligament, extending from the umbilicus to the liver
fibrous remnant of the umbilical vein
209
Porta Hepatis
entry and exit point for lymphatics, blood vessels, and nerves of the liver
210
Hepatocytes
secrete bile, gluconeogenesis (converting amino acids into glucose), breakdown of ingested toxins, and storage of lipids, glycogen, and iron
211
Portal Triad
arrangement of the following three basic structures at the end of the liver lobules: a portal arteriole, portal venule, and bile duct
212
Gallbladder and Biliary System
1. bile canaliculi
2. bile ducts
3. right and left hepatic ducts
4. common hepatic duct
5. cystic duct
6. gallbladder
7. common bile duct
213
Bile Canaliculi
carry bile from hepatocytes to bile ducts inside the liver
214
Bile Ducts
receive bile from bile canaliculi and carry it into the right and left hepatic ducts
215
Right and Left Hepatic Ducts
receive bile from bile ducts in the liver and carry them to the common bile duct
216
Common Hepatic Duct
receives bile from right and left hepatic ducts and carries it into the common bile duct when we have ingested food or to the cystic duct when we are fasting
217
Cystic Duct
transports bile to the gallbladder for storage or out of the gallbladder when needed
218
Gallbladder
stores bile produced in the liver during periods of fasting
219
Common Bile Duct
transports bile from the liver/gallbladder into the duodenum
220
Pancreas
secretes enzymes that aid in digestion, hormones that regulate glucose plasma levels (Insulin and glucagon)
1. head
2. uncinate process
3. neck
4. body
5. tail
6. main pancreatic duct
7. hepatopancreatic duct
8. hepatopancreatic sphincter
9. major duodenal papilla
10. accessory pancreatic duct
11. minor duodenal papilla
221
Head
broad medial aspect of the pancreas next to the duodenum
222
Uncinate Process
projection of the head of the pancreas extending posteriorly to the superior mesenteric artery and vein
223
Neck
short region connecting the head to the body anterior to the superior mesenteric artery and vein
224
Body
region between the neck and the tail
225
Tail
most lateral region of the pancreas
226
Main Pancreatic Duct
transport and deliver digestion enzymes to the duodenum
227
Hepatopancreatic Duct (Ampulla of Vater)
transport and deliver digestion enzymes to the duodenum in addition to bile
228
Hepatopancreatic Sphincter (Sphincter of Odd)
controls the release of bile and enzymes at the Ampulla of Vater and prevents reflux of duodenal contents into it
229
Major Duodenal Papilla
release of pancreatic enzymes and bile into the duodenum
230
Accessory Pancreatic Duct
releases pancreatic enzymes into the duodenum
231
Minor Duodenal Papilla
release of pancreatic enzymes into the duodenum
232
Embryological Divisions of the Digestive System
1. foregut
2. midgut
3. hindgut
233
Foregut
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, biliary system, and the first segment of the duodenum
234
Midgut
distal half of the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, vermiform appendix, ascending colon, and proximal 2/3 of transverse colon
235
Hindgut
distal 1/3 of the transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, superior 2/3 of the anal canal
236
External Anatomy of the Kidney
1. hilum
2. parietal peritoneum
3. renal fascia
4. perirenal fat
5. pararenal fat
6. fibrous capsule
237
Hilum
point of entry/exit for ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves
238
Parietal Peritoneum
provide protection and anchoring to the kidney
239
Renal Fascia
provide protection and anchoring to the kidney
240
Perirenal Fat
provide protection and anchoring to the kidney
241
Pararenal Fat
provide protection and anchoring to the kidney
242
Fibrous Capsule
makes the kidneys adaptable to the constant pressure changes within it
243
Internal Anatomy of the Kidney
1. renal cortex
a. renal columns
2. renal medulla
3. renal pyramid
4. renal papilla
5. renal lobe
244
Renal Cortex
receives 95% of the blood supply of the kidney and contains renal corpuscles, proximal convoluted tubules, and peritublar capillaries
245
Renal Columns
separate adjacent pyramids and transport blood vessels between the renal cortex and the renal medulla
246
Renal Medulla
receive 5% of the kidney's blood supply
contain the nephron loops, vasa recta, and collecting ducts. help maintain the salt/water balance and concentrate urine
247
Renal Pyramid
receive 5% of the kidney's blood supply
contain the nephron loops, vasa recta, and collecting ducts. help maintain the salt/water balance and concentrate urine
248
Renal Papilla
contains terminal distal ends of collecting ducts that drain urine into the minor calyces
249
Renal Lobe
region consisting of a renal pyramid plus the overlying renal cortex and its adjacent renal columns
250
Chamber System of the Kidneys
1. minor calyx
2. major calyx
3. renal pelvis
4. renal sinus
251
Minor Calyx
transports bring from the collecting acts of the renal papilla to a major calyx
252
Major Calyx
transports urine from several minor calyces to the renal pelvis
253
Renal Pelvis
transports bring from the major calyces to a ureter
254
Renal Sinus
region containing the minor and major calyces and the renal pelvis
255
Blood Supply to the Kidneys
1. renal artery
2. segmental arteries
3. interlobar arteries
4. arcuate arteries
5. cortical radiate arteries
6. afferent arteriole
7. glomerulus
8. efferent arteriole
9. vasa recta
10. peritubular capillaries
11. cortical radiate, arcuate, interlobar, segmental, and renal veins
256
Renal Artery
carry oxygenated blood to the kidneys for its own supply and to also be filtered and remove metabolic waste and excess water and absorb nutrients and minerals
257
Segmental Arteries
carry oxygenated blood to the kidneys for its own supply and to also be filtered and remove metabolic waste and excess water and absorb nutrients and minerals
258
Interlobar Arteries
carry oxygenated blood to the kidneys for its own supply and to also be filtered and remove metabolic waste and excess water and absorb nutrients and minerals
259
Arcuate Arteries
carry oxygenated blood to the kidneys for its own supply and to also be filtered and remove metabolic waste and excess water and absorb nutrients and minerals
260
Cortical Radiate Arteries
carry oxygenated blood to the kidneys for its own supply and to also be filtered and remove metabolic waste and excess water and absorb nutrients and minerals
261
Afferent Arteriole
supply blood to individual nephrons for filtration in the glomerulus
262
Glomerulus
blood filtration
263
Efferent Arteriole
drains glomerulus into the cortical radiate veins and form the vasa recta or peritubular capillaries
264
Vasa Recta
supply juxtaglomerular nephrons collecting and transporting water and solutes within the renal medulla
265
Peritubular Capillaries
supply cortical nephrons to collect water and solutes reabsorbed by the nephron and deliver other solutes to the nephron for secretion
266
Cortical Radiate, Arcuate, Interlobar, Segmental, and Renal Veins
drain kidney, take deoxygenated blood into the inferior vena cava back to the heart
267
Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidneys
1. nephron
a. cortical nephron
b. juxtamedullary nephron
268
Nephron
functional unit of the kidneys that produce urine from filtrating blood
269
Cortical Nephron
most numerous nephrons, located almost entirely within the renal cortex
270
Juxtamedullary Nephron
small percentage of the total number of nephrons
have their renal corpuscle located close to the corticomedullary junctions and have long nephron loops extending deep into the renal medulla
271
Renal Corpuscle
1. glomerular capsule
2. glomerular capsule space
3. glomerulus
272
Glomerular Capsule
nephron's filtration apparatus
273
Glomerular Capsule Space
nephron's filtration apparatus
274
Glomerulus
nephron's filtration apparatus
275
Renal Tubular System
1. proximal convoluted tubule
2. nephron loop - ascending and descending limbs
3. distal convoluted tubule
276
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
reabsorbs ~65% of of the filtrate coming from the renal corpuscle and specializes in ion reabsorption, passing them into the peritubular capillaries
277
Nephron Loop - Ascending and Descending Limbs
specializes in water reabsorption from the tubular fluid (descending limb) and NaCl (ascending limb)
278
Dital Convoluted Tubule
further ion reabsorption and secretion from tubular fluid
279
Collecting System
1. collecting duct
2. papillary duct
280
281
Collecting Duct
reabsorbs excess water from tubular fluid in the renal medulla
282
Papillary Duct
collect tubular fluid from multiple collecting ducts and delivers it to a minor calyx
283
Ureter
transports bring from the kidneys to the urinary bladder
284
Urinary Bladder
1. detrusor muscle
2. body
3. fundus
4. apex
5. neck
6. trigone
a. ureteric orifice
285
Detrusor Muscle
relaxation of this muscle allows for filling of the bladder with urine, contraction of this muscle helps with excretion of urine
286
Trigone
"funnel" that channels using into the urethra when the urinary bladder contracts
287
Ureteric Orifice
empties the ring from the ureters into the urinary bladder
288
Urethra
1. internal urethral sphincter
2. internal urethral orifice
3. external urethral sphincter
4. external urethral orifice
289
Internal Urethral Sphincter
provides involuntary control over the exertion of urine from the urinary bladder
290
Internal Urethral Orifice
emptying of the urinary bladder into the urethra
291
External Urethral Sphincter
provides voluntary control of the excretion of urine
292
External Urethral Orifice
excretion of urine
293
External Female Genitalia - Vulva
1. mons pubis
2. labia majora
3. labia minora
4. vestibule
5. clitoris
a. prepuce of clitoris
b. glans of clitoris
c. body of clitoris
d. crus of clitoris
6. bulb of the vestibule
7. greater vestibular gland
8. hymen
294
Mons Pubis
covers and protects the pubic symphysis
295
Labia Majora
protect the vaginal and external urethral orifices
296
Labia Minora
protect the vaginal and external urethra orifices and enclose the vestibule
297
Vestibule
contains the clitoris, and the external urethral and the vaginal orifices
298
Clitoris
mass of erectile tissue at the anterior convergence of the labia minora
sexual pleasure
299
Prepuce of Clitoris
skin fold formed by the union of the labia minora surrounding the body of the clitoris
sexual pleasure
300
Glans of Clitoris
"head of the clitoris"
small protrusion at the end of the body of the clitoris
sexual pleasure
301
Body of Clitoris
region formed by the union of crura from both sides at the midline on the anterior end of the vestibule
sexual pleasure
302
Crus of the Clitoris
attached to ischiopubic ramus, covered by the ischiocavermosus muscles, convergences forms the body
sexual pleasure
303
Bulb of the Vestibule
deep to labia minora and lateral to the vestibule, covered by the bulbospongiosus muscle
sexual pleasure
304
Greater Vestibular Gland
secretes mucus to lubricate the vagina
305
Hymen
partially covers the vaginal orifice to potentially protect the vagina from bacteria and foreign objects entering the vagina
306
Internal Female Genitalia
reproductive organs located inside the pelvic cavity
1. ovary
2. fallopian tube
a. infundibulum with fimbrae
b. ampulla
c. isthmus of the uterine tube
d. intramural part
3. uterus
4. vagina
a. vaginal orifice
b. vaginal fornix - anterior, posterior, and lateral
307
Ovary
site for maturation and release of the ovum and serves as an endocrine gland that releases estrogen and progesterone
308
Fallopian/Uterine Tube
transport of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus, the usual site for ovum fertilization
309
Infundibulum with Fimbriae
distal part of tube that opens in the peritoneal cavity
transport of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus, the usual site for ovum fertilization
310
Ampulla
longest and widest portion of the uterine tube, most common site of fertilization
transport of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus, the usual site for ovum fertilization
311
Isthmus of the Uterine Tube
narrowest portion of the tube, medial to the ampulla
transport of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus, the usual site for ovum fertilization
312
Intramural/Uterine Part
portion within the uterine wall, opens into the uterine cavity
transport of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus, the usual site for ovum fertilization
313
Uterus
during the menstrual cycle, the inner lining (endometrium) proliferates, preparing for embryo implantation but if implantation doesn't occur it sloughs off
when implantation of a fertilized egg occurs, it serves as a place for the growing embryo and placenta
314
Vagina
facilitates menstruation, sexual intercourse, and childbirth
315
Vaginal Orifice
opening at the distal end of the vagina in the vestibule
facilitates menstruation, sexual intercourse, and childbirth
316
Vaginal Fornix - Anterior, Posterior, and Lateral
reservoir for semen after intravaginal ejaculation
317
Uterine Wall
1. endometrium
2. myometrium
3. perimetrium
318
Endometrium
thick mucosal lining with a functional and basal layer
provides optimal conditions for the implantation of an embryo, helps maintain pregnancy if it occurs, and menstruation if pregnancy doesn't occur
319
Myometrium
thick smooth muscle layer, superficial to the endometrium
gives the structural integrity to the uterus, expands during pregnancy to sustain a growing fetus and it contracts during labor to help parturition
320
Perimetrium
outer serosal layer, superficial to the myometrium
secretes fluid to reduce the friction of the uterus within the pelvic cavity
321
Regions of the Uterus
1. fundus
2. body
3. uterine cavity
4. cervix
a. internal os
b. external os
c. cervical canal
322
Fundus
base of the body located superiorly
323
Body
main region uterus connected to the uterine tubes
324
Uterine Cavity
internal chamber
allows the passage of sperm into the uterine tube where fertilization of the ovum may take place
325
Cervix
distal neck
connects the body of the uterus to the vagina and facilitates the passage of sperm into the uterine cavity
prevents bacterial infection in the vagina from reaching the uterus
326
Internal Os
communication between the uterine cavity and the vagina
327
External Os
communication between the uterine cavity and the vagina
328
Cervical Canal
passageway between the internal and eternal os
communication between the uterine cavity and the vagina
329
Ligaments and Peritoneal Folds of the Uterus and Ovaries
1. broad ligament of the uterus
a. mesovarium
b. mesoalpinx
c. mesometrium
2. suspensory ligament of the ovaries
3. round ligament of the uterus
4. ovarian ligament
330
Broad Ligament of the Uterus
maintain the uterus and ovaries in position and carry blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves to and from them
331
Mesovarium
covers the ovarian ligaments
maintain the uterus and ovaries in position and carry blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves to and from them
332
Mesosalpinx
covers the uterine/fallopian tube
maintain the uterus and ovaries in position and carry blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves to and from them
333
Mesometrium
extends from the ovarian ligament to the pelvic floor and body of the uterus
maintain the uterus and ovaries in position and carry blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves to and from them
334
Suspensory Ligament of the Ovaries
attaches to the lateral abdominal wall extending from the abdominal aorta to the ovaries
maintain the uterus and ovaries in position and carry blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves to and from them
335
Round Ligament of the Uterus
extends from the proximal region of the uterus to the connective tissue of the labia majora after passing through the inguinal canal
contains lymphatic draining the uterine region into the femoral and into the superficial lymph nodes
336
Ovarian Ligament
extension of round ligament extending from the ovaries to the uterus
anchors the ovaries to the uterus
337
Spaces Created by the Peritoneum
1. Rectouterine Pouch
2. Vesicouterine Pouch
338
Rectouterine Pouch
reduces the friction between the rectum and uterus as there are constant changes in their volume
339
Vesicouterine Pouch
prevents the urinary bladder from attaching to the uterus
340
Female Breast
1. mammary glands
2. lactiferous ducts
3. areola
4. nipple
341
Mammary Glands
produce milk under the influence of prolactin and eject milk under the influence of oxytocin
342
Lactiferous Ducts
transport milk from the mammary glands to the nipple
343
Areola
secrete lubrication oil to protect the nipple
344
Nipple
secretion of milk
345
Male External and Internal Genitalia
1. scrotum
a. dartos muscle
b. cremaster muscle
2. testis
3. tunica vaginalis testis - parietal and visceral layers
4. tunica albuginea
5. seminiferous tubules
6. rete testis
7. epididymis
8. spermatic cord
a. ductus deferens
b. ampulla of the ductus deferens
c. pampiniform plexus
d. testicular artery
9. seminal gland
10. ejaculatory duct
11. prostate gland
12. bulbourethral gland
13. penis
a. bulb of the penis
b. body of the penis
c. glans of the penis
14. corpus spongiosum
15. corpus cavernosum
16. spongy urethra
346
Scotum
contains the testis and lower parts of the spermatic cord, allows the testes to be positioned outside of the body for optimal temperature needed for sperm development
347
Dartos Muscle
contraction gives the scrotum its wrinkled appearance by regulating its surface area
348
Cremaster Muscle
contraction pulls testes closer to the abdominopelvic cavity when outside temperature is low
349
Testis
produces sperm and testosterone
350
Tunica Vaginalis Tetis - Parietal and Visceral Layers
secretes serous fluid to allow for reduced friction of the testis inside the scrotum
351
Tunica Albuginea
covers and protects each testis
352
Seminiferous Tubules
production site of sperm
353
Rete Testis
transports immature sperm from seminiferous tubules to the epididymis
354
Epididymis
storage and maturation of spermatozoa
355
Spermatic Cord
encloses ductus deferens, testicular blood vessels and nerves
356
Ductus Deferens
transports sperm from the epididymis to ampulla
357
Ampulla of the Ductus Deferens
empties sperm into the ejaculatory duct
358
Pampiniform Plexus
drains venous blood from the testes and spermatic cord
359
Testicular Artery
supplies oxygenated blood to the testes and spermatic cord
360
Seminal Gland
secretes yellowish alkaline viscous fluid that constitutes about 70-85% of semen. It contains fructose and citric acid to nourish that sperm and prostaglandins to enhance sperm motility
361
Ejaculatory Duct
receives seminal fluid from seminal vesicles and sperm from the ductus deferens
contraction of this duct propels sperm through the prostate gland
362
Postate Gland
secretes an acidic, milky fluid into the urethra
363
Bulbourethral Gland
clear alkaline mucus that lubricates the tip of the penis and neutralizes traces of acidic urine remaining in the male urethra prior to ejaculation
364
Penis
provides outlet for urine and seminal fluid
365
Bulb of the Penis
attaches the penis to the perineum and contains the bulb of the penis and crura
366
Body of the Penis
contains erectile tissues and spongy urethra
367
Glans of the Penis
contains the external urethral orifice
368
Corpus Spongiosum
helps the penis get into an erect state, keeping the spongy urethra open which is necessary for ejaculation
369
Corpus Cavernosum
helps penis get into an erected state
370
Spongy Urethra
delivers urine and seminal fluid outside of the male penis
371
Male Urethra
1. prostatic urethra
2. membranous urethra
3. spongy urethra
372
Prostatic Urethra
transport semen from the ejaculatory duct to the outside
373
Membranous Urethra
transport semen from the ejaculatory duct to the outside
374
Urogenital Triangle - Superficial Layer
1. ischiocavernosus
2. bulbospongiosus
3. superficial transverse perineal muscle
375
Ischiocavernosus
O - ischial tuberosity
I - erectile tissue of penis or clitoris
A - erection of penis or clitoris
N - pudendal nerve
376
Bulbospongiosus
O - central tendon of perineum
I - erectile tissue of penis or clitoris
A - erection of penis or clitoris
N - pudendal nerve
377
Superficial Transverse Perineal Muscle
O - ischial tuberosity
I - perineal body
A - stablizes the perineal body
N - pudendal nerve
378
Urogenital Triangle - Deep Layer
1. deep transverse perineal muscle
2. external urethral sphincter
379
Deep Transverse Perineal Muscle
O - ischial ramus
I - perineal body
A - supports pelvic organs
N - pudendal nerve
380
External Urethral Sphincter
O - ischiopubic ramus
I - midline raphe
A - constricts urehtra to allow for the voluntary control of urination
N - pudendal nerve
381
Anal Triangle
external anal sphincter
382
External Anal Sphincter
O - skin and fascia surrounding the anus
I - perineal body
A - constricts the anus to allow for the voluntary control of defecation
N - pudendal nerve
383
Muscles of the Pelvic Floor - Pelvic Diaphragm
1. levator ani
2. coccygeus
384
Levator Ani
O - pubis and spine of the ischium
I - coccyx and levator ani from the opposite side
A - support the pelvic organs, preventing them from prolapsing
N - pudendal nerve
385
Coccygeus
O - spine of ischium
I - sacrum and coccyx
A - supports the pelvic organs, preventing them from prolapsing
N - sacral spinal nerves
386
Muscles of the Lateral Wall of the Pelvis
1. obturator internus
2. piriformis
387
Obturator Internus
O - obturator membrane and obturator foramen bony boundaries
I - greater trochanter of the femur
A - form the lateral wall of the pelvis
N - nerve to obturator internus
388
Piriformis
O - sacrum
I - greater trochanter of the femur
A - form the lateral wall of the pelvis
N - nerve to the piriformis
389
Internal Iliac Artery
supplies the walls and viscera of the pelvis, perineum, and gluteal region
1. umbilical artery
2. superior vesical artery
3. inferior vesical artery
4. obturator artery
5. pudendal artery
6. inferior gluteal artery
7. superior gluteal artery
390
Umbilical Artery
major blood vessel for fetal circulation
after birth, it supplies oxygenated blood to the urinary bladder
391
Superior Vesical Artery
supply oxygenated blood to the superior surface of the urinary bladder
392
Interior Vesical Artery
supply oxygenated blood to the posteroinferior surface of the urinary bladder
393
Obturator Artery
supplies the adductor compartment of the thigh muscles
394
Pudendal Artery
supplies oxygenated blood to the urogenital and anal triangles
395
Inferior Gluteal Artery
supplies the sciatic nerve, gluteus maximus, rotator hip muscles, and levator ani muscles plus the skin of the gluteal and thigh regions
396
Superior Gluteal Artery
supply gluteal muscles and rotator hip muscles plus the skin over the sacrum
397
Fertilization
sperm penetration of the ovum
1. zygote
398
Zygote
fertilized ovum - single cell with fertilization membrane surrounding it
399
Cleavage
rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote to form an embryo
1. 4-cell stage
2. morula
3. blastocyst
a. inner cell mass
b. trophoblast
400
4-Cell Stage
cluster of divided cells being made from a zygote undergoing mitotic divisions
401
Morula
solid mass of cells when the blastocyst has divided by the 32nd time, around the 3rd day after fertilization
402
Blastocyst
last stage of cleavage when there is the appearance of a central cavity within the solid mass of cells (morula)
403
Inner Cell Mass (Embryoblast)
inner mass of cells surrounded by the trophoblast
forms the embryo's body
404
Trophoblast
outer single flattened cell layer
encloses the embryoblast, secretes enzymes to help during implantation and it becomes the chorion (precursor to the placenta after implantation)
405
Gastrulation
formation of primary germ layers in the embryo
1. early-stage gastrula
2. later stage gastrula
406
Early-Stage Gastrula
two-layer embryo
precursor to three-layer embryo
407
Later State Gastrula
three-layer embryo, primary germ layers
precursor to all tissues in the human body
408
Primary Germ Layers
1. ectoderm
2. mesoderm
3. endoderm
409
Ectoderm
outermost layer
1. epidermis and accessory skin structures
2. organs of special senses
3. glands such as the pituitary, pineal, and medulla of the adrenal glands
410
Mesoderm
middle layer
1. internal reproductive organs
2. most smooth muscle
3. most lymphoid organs and tissues
411
Endoderm
innermost layer
1. epithelial lining of the respiratory, GI, urinary and reproductive tracts
412
Fetal Development
embryo becomes a fetus by week 9 after fertilization
1. placenta
2. amniotic sac and fluid
3. umbilical cord
413
Placenta
meeting point of maternal and fetal circulatory systems
provides oxygen and nutrients to the fetus and removes its waste materials and carbon dioxide
414
Amniotic Sac and Fluid
cushions and protects the fetus fro mechanical injuries, adhesions, and temperature extremes
415
Umbilical Cord
vital passage connecting the fetus to the placenta
