Lab practical 3 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the syrinx?
A
A structure near the end of the trachea just before the bronchi in birds. Allows for phonation.
2
Q
What are the muscular slits in the syrinx called?
A
A tympanic membrane
3
Q
Each tympanic membrane can be controlled ____________ for elaborate phonation.
A
Independently
4
Q
What is well developed in songbirds?
A
The syrinx
5
Q
The syrinx allows for songbirds to sing in _ different frequencies at the same time.
A
2
6
Q
What is the wood thrush bird capable of?
A
Controlling both tympanic membranes within the syrinx and can sing in two different frequencies simultaneously.
7
Q
Where is ventilation achieved in birds?
A
Expanded air sacs
8
Q
Where is gas exchange achieved in birds?
A
The lungs
9
Q
Lungs do not change in ____ in birds.
A
size
10
Q
What kind of ventilation do birds use?
A
A combination of flow-through and tidal ventilation
11
Q
What is the pathway of the bird respiratory system?
A
Nasal passages, trachea, primary bronchi (each passing through a lung), secondary bronchi, inhaled air ends at posterior air sacs.
12
Q
Describe the trachea in birds.
A
4.5 times longer and wider than mammals of comparable size.
13
Q
What does the large trachea in birds allow for?
A
Increased tidal volume and lower respiration rate
14
Q
What are the two secondary bronchi in each lung in birds?
A
ventrobronchi and dorsobronchi
15
Q
What are the two secondary bronchi connected by?
A
parabronchi
16
Q
What do parabronchi contain?
A
Air capillaries or small tunnels (rather than alveoli)
17
Q
What regulates diameter in parabronchi?
A
Smooth muscle
18
Q
What happens as air flows form dorsobronchi to ventrobronchi?
A
Oxygen exchange from air capillaries to pulmonary capillaries
19
Q
Air sacs inflate and deflate ______.
A
tidally
20
Q
Air sacs rely on ___ _________ and large ________ to power ventilation.
A
rib movement, sternum
21
Q
___ inspirations and expirations are needed to complete a respiratory cycle in birds.
A
Two
22
Q
Air flows into __________ the expired to _________ then exhaled out through _______.
A
dorsobronchi, ventrobronchi, trachea
23
Q
What increases gas exchange in birds?
A
Crosscurrent blood flow along parabronchi
24
Q
Do air sacs contribute to gas exchange?
A
No
25
Air sacs have ___ blood supply.
low
26
What is the benefit of air sacs?
They promote unidirectional flow of large volumes of air through the lung parabronchi.
27
How many total air sacs do domestic birds have?
8-9
28
What are the two groups of air sacs?
Anterior and posterior
29
What are air sacs held open by?
Connective tissue
30
Where do some air sacs protrude into?
Bone medullary cavity
31
How many cervical air sacs do domestic birds have?
1-2
32
How many clavicular (or intraclavicular) air sacs do domestic birds have?
1
33
How many cranial (or anterior) thoracic air sacs do domestic birds have?
2
34
How many caudal (or posterior) thoracic air sacs do domestic birds have?
2
35
How many abdominal air sacs do domestic birds have?
2
36
What are diverticula?
Additional air sacs inside the bones
37
Which air sacs may have diverticula?
The cervical and clavicular air sacs
38
What is the anterior/cranial group of air sacs attached to?
Ventrobronchi
39
What is the function of the anterior/cranial group of air sacs?
To receive old exhaled air
40
Which air sacs are included in the anterior/cranial group?
Interclavicular (clavicular), cervical, and anterior thoracics
41
What is the posterior/ caudal group of air sacs attached to?
The dorsobronchi
42
What is the function of the posterior/caudal group of air sacs?
Receive fresh inhaled air
43
What air sacs are included in the posterior/caudal group?
Th posterior thoracics and abdominals
44
Why do birds require more oxygen?
They have a high metabolism and some fly at high elevations
45
What reduces gas diffusion distance in birds?
Thinner epithelial cells lining the pulmonary capillaries than mammals
46
Air capillaries without _____ ___ like alveoli promote flow through system.
blind end
47
Air capillaries are ____ and _______ to high activity damage unlike alveoli with high elasticity and recoil.
rigid, resistent
48
Air capillaries have _____ blood supply.
Greater
49
In birds, __%-__% of air oxygen is extracted in flow through system.
30, 40
50
About __% of air oxygen is extracted in true tidal systems in mammals.
25
51
What is the respiratory pathway in mammals?
Nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
52
What prevents food and water from entering the trachea?
The epiglottas
53
What are the rings found in the trachea called?
Cartilaginous rings
54
What is the "adams apple?"
Thyroid cartilage
55
What are the lobes in the right lung of a pig called?
Cranial, middle, accessory, and caudal
56
What are the lobes in the left lung of a pig called?
Cranial and caudal
57
What does the digestive tract of most vertebrates include?
The mouth pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and cecum, and anus.
58
What are the accessory organs to the digestive system in most vertebrates?
Salivary glands, pancreas, and biliary system.
59
What organs are part of the biliary system?
The liver and in some species the gallbladder.
60
What are the 4 chambers in ruminants called?
The rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum
61
What is the "true" stomach in ruminants?
The abomasum
62
What does the stomach include in birds?
The proventriculus and gizzard (ventriculus)
63
What is the "true" stomach in birds?
The proventriculus
64
What is the pathway of the digestive system?
Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.
65
What is particularly large in hind-gut fermenters, such as horses?
The cecum
66
In ruminants the __________ chamber is the gastric (glandular) region that secretes HCl for protein digestion.
abomasum
67
What kind of fermenters are ruminants?
Foregut fermenters
68
__________ involves carbohydrate metabolism in the absence of oxygen.
Fermentation
69
What is fermentation achieved by?
Anaerobic bacteria within specific chambers
70
What is the purpose of fermentation?
To digest cellulose
71
What is cellulose metabolized into?
Absorbable fatty acids
72
What is the purpose of regurgitation, re-mastication, and the swallowing of cud?
Reduces food particle size
73
What is cud?
Partially digested food regurgitated to the mouth for rechewing.
74
What chambers make up the ruminant forestomach?
The rumen, reticulum, and omasum.
75
What is the largest chamber of a ruminant stomach?
The rumen
76
What is the second largest chamber of a ruminant stomach?
The abomasum
77
What is the third largest chamber of a ruminant stomach?
The reticulum
78
What is the fourth largest (smallest) chamber of the ruminant stomach?
The omasum
79
Which chambers are responsible for the bulk of fermentation by bacteria in ruminants?
The rumen and reticulum (ruminoreticulum)
80
The ___________ and _____ layer of smooth muscle is important for mixing and moving of food through the chambers and toward small intestine.
longitudinal, circular
81
Where does the esophagus end in ruminants?
At a junction between the rumen and reticulum called the cardia
82
What divides the ingested material in a cow rumen?
Pillars
83
How much ingested material can the cow rumen hold?
110-135 Liters
84
Pillar contraction aids in _____ but also limits ________ of food into different compartments.
mixing,movement
85
What are papillae?
Visible finger-like projections that cover the inside of the rumen and increase surface area for fermentation and absorption of fatty acids.
86
Which chamber of the ruminant stomach is on the left side?
The rumen
87
What chambers of the ruminant stomach are on the right side?
The omasum, abomasum, and reticulum
88
What sacs make up the rumen?
The dorsal sac, ventral sac, caudoventral sac, and caudodorsal sac.
89
What are the grooves in the ruminant stomach?
The accessory groove, the longitudinal groove, the dorsal coronary groove, the caudal groove, and the ventral coronary groove.
90
What pathway does food take once it has entered the rumen stomach?
Rumen, reticulum, back to the esophagus, into the omasum, the abomasum, and into the small intestine.
91
What is the function of the rumen?
Mixing and fermentation
92
What is the function of the omasum?
Water absorption
93
What is the function of the abomasum?
Protein digestion
94
What separates the rumen and reticulum?
A rumenoreticular fold
95
How is food exchanged between the rumen and reticulum during mixing?
It is freely exchanged
96
What covers the surface of the reticulum?
Honeycomb like structures that help sort and filter food particles
97
Where does food enter the omasum?
The reticulo-omasal orifice
98
What groove extends from the opening of the esophagus to the omasum?
The reticular or esophageal groove
99
What does the esophageal groove allow for?
It forms a tube in young nursing ruminants, which allows for food to bypass the rumen, reticulum, and omasum. This prevents microbes from spoiling the milk.
100
What do the structures of the omasum resemble?
Pages in a book
101
What does the omasum limit?
The passage of large particles into the abomasum
102
What controls the flow of material between the omasum and abomasum?
Omaso-abomasal orifice
103
What is the definition of the abomasum?
The acid secreting region that digests proteins and microbes
104
What does the abomasum have that non-ruminant stomachs do not have?
Large spiral folds
105
What is larger in the abomasum than in non-ruminant stomachs
The fundic and pyloric regions
106
When does rumen smooth muscle motility increase?
With sight of food, chewing, rumination or distention of the ruminoreticulum (autonomic activity from the medulla)
107
How long do cattle ruminate each day?
8 hours
108
What triggers rumination cycles?
Contraction of the reticulum, closing of the glottis, relaxation of lower esophageal sphincter, and reverse peristalsis
109
What is another word for chewing?
Mastication
110
What is the rumen buffered by?
Enormous amounts of saliva
111
What does the saliva in the rumen contain?
Bicarbonate, phosphates, and ammonia
112
What is the optimal pH of the rumen?
6.5-7.0 (usually lower because of VFAs)
113
What do the microbes in the rumen consist of?
Bacteria, archaea, protozoa, and fungi
114
How many species of bacteria are in the rumen and at what concentration?
200 species at a concentration of 10^9 to 10^10 per gram of rumen content
115
What is the function of epi-mural bacteria?
Use oxygen supplied by tissues and keep the oxygen levels in rumen low for anaerobic bacteria. They also convert urea from the rumen wall to ammonia
116
How many species of protozoa are there in the rumen that feed on bacteria?
60
117
How many species of fungi are there in the rumen that weaken plant cell walls?
14
118
What does glucose metabolism result in the production of?
Volatile fatty acids acetate, butyrate, and propionate. Methane and carbon dioxide also produced.
119
Rumen fluid consists of __%-__% acetate, __%-__% propionate, and __%-__% butyric acid.
60-70, 14-20, and 10-14
120
What are the most important products of digestion?
Acetate, propionate, and butyric acid
121
What happens to acetate, propionate, and butyric acid?
They are absorbed across the rumen epithelium and transported by the hepatic portal vein to the liver
122
What is important about propionate?
It is the only VFA that can be used to regenerate glucose for the ruminant animal
123
__% of the ruminant's body glucose and glycogen is produced from propionate in the liver.
70
124
What are butyric acid and acetate used for?
To produce ATP and body or milk fat
125
Microbes use ________ to produce peptides and amino acids and convert some amino acids to ammonia.
proteases
126
Where is ammonia absorbed in the ruminant?
Through the ruminoreticulum and omasum
127
Where are microbe amino acids and nucleic acids absorbed?
In the small intestine
128
What percentage of dietary protein entering the rumen is not degraded?
30 to 40
