language + gender Flashcards
(21 cards)
who’s theory does O’barr and Atkins challenge?
Lakoff
o’barr and Atkins
studies in a courtroom, observed witnesses and examined them for basic speech differences between men and women. “women’s language” consisted of hedges, apologising more, speaking less and tag questions. they discovered that lakoff’s proposed differences were not the result of being a women, but of being powerless
o’barr and Atkins study criticism
O’Barr and Atkins’ interpretation of speech patterns as indicators of powerlessness can be seen as reinforcing traditional gender stereotypes.
what did Zimmerman and west find about men and women interrupting?
a small sample of conversations in 1975 were recorded. they report that in 11 conversations between men and women, men used 46 interruptions, but women only two. men interrupt more often as they are attempting to dominate the conversation
Beattie - challenges Zimmerman and west
recorded 10 hours of discussion and 557 interruptions (compared to 55 by Zimmerman and west) and found women and men interrupted with more or less equal frequency (men 34, women 33) - so men did interrupt more, but by a slight margin
what did lakoff find about the way in which men and women’s speech diverts?
lakoff complied a list of ways in which men and women’s speech diverts, concluding that women are less likely to swear or joke than men and have a higher incidence of tag questions whilst men are more likely to use imperatives as well as covert prestige and dominate speaking time in conversations
4 examples of women’s language according to lakoff?
- hedging
- apologise more
- tag questions
- indirect commands
how can we challenge lakoffs theory?
whilst this categorically announces that there were clear divisions between how lakoff’s subjects spoke, it should also be noted that the study took place in 1975 - a time period where only 50% of women occupied working roles. this figure has now risen globally to over 70%, suggesting that women may speak more like men today as they are more likely to enjoy an equal status and found in a similar working environment
how does the ERSC support modern findings and refute lakoff’s findings and what does this imply?
the ERSC are currently monitoring the levels of swearing. their 2017 findings show that females use the “f-word” 546 times per every million words, while men only use it 540 times. this implies women are now more likely to show annoyance and emotion than they were when lakoff observed them, possibly because of the comfort of living within more gender-equal laws
what does Deborah tannens difference theory argue?
men and women communicate differently due to socialisation, leading to distinct conversational styles and potential misunderstandings
differences between men and women’s use of language according to Deborah tannens difference theory?
men: use language to assert dominance and preserve independence. They often focus on “report-style” communication, prioritising factual information.
women: use language to build relationships, and seek support. They often focus on “rapport-style” communication, emphasizing intimacy and connection
2 examples of differences according to tannen’s difference theory?
- men aim to win arguments and assert their opinions, while women build and maintain relationships
- men often discuss sports or politics while women discuss personal experiences or relationships
what has tannen’s difference theory been criticised for?
overgeneralising and reinforcing gender stereotypes
holmes
women use just as much humour as men, and use it for the same functions although they are more likely to encourage supportive and collaborative humour. women managers are more likely to negotiate consensus than male managers and take time to make sure everyone agrees with what has been decided
what did Deborah jones look at?
house-talk comes in 3 parts:
- scandal: judging the behaviour of others
- bitching: overt expression of anger which they do in private in an environment their anger will be understood
- chatting: intimate form of gossip
Deborah Cameron
Challenges the idea that men and women speak different languages, arguing that language differences are due to societal expectations, not biological factors.
verbal hygiene - women are taught to speak in a way that is considered “proper” and that conforming to these expectations (“verbal hygiene”) can be a form of social control
locker room
Pilkington
Looked at the way a ‘locker-room’ banter is created within all-male groups. Insults were a part of this culture and created bonds.
tannen - contrasts and competition
6 contrasts between men and women:
- status vs support
- advice vs understanding
- information vs feelings
- orders vs proposals
- independence vs intimacy
- conflict vs compromise
men grew up in a world which conversation is competitive - they seek to achieve the upper hand or to prevent others from dominating them. for women, talking is a way to gain confirmation and support
fishman - conversational shitwork theory
listened to 52 hours of conversation between American couples and concentrated on tag questions. found that women frequently use the tag questions “isn’t it?” or “couldn’t we?” which are an effective method of gaining conversational power and maintaining conversation with males and are left with the task of making conversations work
lakoff - deficit theory
women’s language is weaker than men’s, reflecting societal power imbalances. It suggests women’s language is characterised by traits like hedging, tag questions, and hypercorrectness, stemming from perceived social insecurity and a need to be polite
spender, fishman, Zimmerman and west - dominance theory
argues that male language use often reflects and reinforces a power dynamic where men are seen as dominant and women are seen as less powerful. This dominance can manifest in various ways, such as men interrupting women more frequently, using language to exert control or dominating speaking time
