Language Levels & Literary Devices Flashcards
(493 cards)
1
Q
Lexis
A
Technical term for words, the vocabulary of a language
2
Q
Open Word Class
A
The overarching lexical category of word classes where new
words can continually be added
3
Q
Noun
A
A word that refers to a person, place, item, event
4
Q
Count Noun
A
A noun that can be preceded by a number and counted (one book, three cows)
5
Q
Mass Noun
A
A noun that can’t be counted and doesn’t have a plural (information, freedom)
6
Q
Proper Noun
A
The lexis which refers to names of people, places or
organisations (Cadbury’s, Bournemouth)
7
Q
Abstract Noun
A
The lexis which refers to states, feelings and concepts that do
not have a physical existence (freedom, love, hate)
8
Q
Concrete Noun
A
The lexis which refers to things with a physical existence (toast)
9
Q
Collective Noun
A
The lexis which refers to groups of things (a flock of sheep, a bunch of grapes)
10
Q
Hypernym
A
An overarching (category) noun which encompasses many
other nouns (animal, vegetable)
11
Q
Hyponym
A
A noun with a narrower meaning which is part of a hypernym
(category member) (cow, pig, pea, carrot)
12
Q
Metonym
A
Using a word or phrase which is a part of something, to
describe the whole thing (Number 10=Prime Minister, Suits=Business People)
13
Q
Verb
A
A word or phrase that describes an action, condition, or
experience
14
Q
Verbal Verb
A
The lexis which is linked to the process of making sounds (shouted, whispered, hissed)
15
Q
Material Verb
A
The lexis which refers to a physical action (running, jumping)
16
Q
Mental Verb
A
The lexis which shows internal processes (thinking, wishing, believing)
17
Q
Relational Verb
A
The lexis which describes states of being (be, appear, seem)
18
Q
Dynamic Verb
A
The lexis which describes actions we can take, or things that
happen; they have a continuous form (Chris KICKS the ball;
Chris PAINTS)
19
Q
Stative Verb
A
The lexis which describes states/conditions unlikely to change
(possession, feeling, perception, mental processes, identity);
typically, they do not have a continuous form (Chris HAS a car;
Chris KNOWS a lot;
Chris IS a doctor)
20
Q
Adjective
A
A word which describes a noun (blue)
21
Q
Pre-Modifying Adjective
A
Adjectives placed before the head noun (a DANGEROUS animal)
22
Q
Post-Modifying Adjective
A
Adjectives placed after the head noun (the day was GOOD)
23
Q
Demonstrative Adjective
A
Indicates exactly which noun the speaker means and is usually
used within spoken language as it requires context (this, those, these, that)
24
Q
Possessive Adjective
A
A word which is placed before a noun to show ownership (my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their)
25
Adverb
A word which describes a verb
26
Temporal Adverb
A word or phrase which expresses when the verb happens (tomorrow, today, later, now)
27
Degree Adverb
A word which expresses the intensity of an adjective, adverb or
verb (too, enough, very, quite, extreme)
28
Duration Adverb
A word which expresses how long the verb happens for (forever, minutes)
29
Frequency adverb
A word which expresses how often the verb happens (sometimes, daily)
30
Manner Adverb
A word which expresses how the verb happens (badly, greedily)
31
Spatial Adverb
A word or phrase which expresses where the verb happens (here, under here, there, forward)
32
Positive
The basic, form of an adjective or adverb without any sense of
comparison (grumpy, fast)
33
Comparative
An adjective or an adverb which compares two things showing
greater or lesser degree (grumpier. faster)
34
Superlative
An adjective or an adverb which shows the greatest or least
degree (grumpiest, fastest)
35
Closed Word Class
The overarching lexical category of word classes where new
words cannot be added
36
Determiner/Article
A word that comes before a noun or noun phrase to clarify
if the noun is specific or general (the, an, a)
37
Definite Article
Indicates a specific noun (the)
38
Indefinite Article
Indicates a non-specific noun (an, a)
39
Interrogative Determiner
Used in the creation of both direct and indirect questions (who, what, when, where, why, which, whose, how)
40
Quantifier
A word to give information about the quantity of a noun (few, some)
41
Cardinal Number
A number which shows a quantity (one, two)
42
Ordinal Number
A number defining the position of something in a series (firstly, secondly)
43
Preposition
Words which show the location of a noun (under, on, at, from)
44
Co-ordinating Conjunction
A linking word which connects independent clauses or
phrases, giving equal importance to each section (and, but, or)
45
Subordinating Conjunction
A linking word which connects an independent clause with
a subordinate clause (because, although, since)
46
Pronoun
Words which replace nouns (he, she)
47
First Person Pronoun
A pronoun when the speaker is referring to themselves
either alone or as part of a group (I, you, me, us)
48
Second Person Pronoun
A pronoun when the speaker is referring to the
person/group of people they are talking to (you)
49
Third Person Pronoun
A pronoun when the speaker is referring to someone or
something other than the speaker or listener (he, she, it, they, him, her, them)
50
Personal Pronoun
A pronoun that refers to a particular person, group, or thing (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)
51
Possessive Pronoun
A pronoun which takes the place of a noun to show
ownership (mine, yours, his, hers)
52
Reflexive Pronoun
Pronouns that are used when the subject and the object of a sentence are the same (myself, yourself, herself, himself)
53
Demonstrative Pronoun
Replaces the noun and refers to something specific (these, those, this, that)
54
Relative Pronoun
A pronoun which introduces a relative clause (who, that, which)
55
Semantics
The study of how the meanings of words and expressions are
created and interpreted
56
Denotation
The literal meanings of words (summer-season)
57
Connotation
The associated meanings of words (summer-beach, sun, sea)
58
Antonym
Words which mean opposite things (valuable-worthless)
59
Synonym
Words which mean the same thing (valuable-precious)
60
Literal Language
Language which uses the actual meanings of words
61
Semantic Field
A group of words which have similar connotations, or which are part of the same theme (colour-red, hue, pink, shade, blue, tone)
62
Figurative Language
Language that is used in a non-literal way to create images
and form comparisons
63
Simile
A direct comparison through the use of ‘like’ or ‘as’ (he is as funny as a monkey)
64
Metaphor
A structure that presents one thing in terms of another (he is drowning in work)
65
Zoomorphism
Giving animal qualities, characteristics or behaviour to a
human (im preying on you tonight)
66
Anthropomorphism
Giving human qualities, characteristics or behaviour to an
animal or object (mickey mouse, pinocchio)
67
Collocation
Routinely placing words or phrases together, sounds normal to a native speaker (heavy rain, fast food, utter disaster)
68
Idiom
An expression where the meaning is not predictable from the
usual meanings of its elements (over the moon, im all ears)
69
Cliché
A saying or remark that has been used so much is not original
or interesting (useless as a chocolate lifeguard)
70
Euphemism
Using a more socially acceptable word or phrase (passed away)
71
Dysphemism
Using a blunt or direct word instead of a more polite or
indirect alternative (thats bullshit)
72
Hyperbole
Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken
literally (my bag weighs a tonne)
73
Rhetorical Language
Language that is used to persuade
74
Logos
It appeals
to an audience’s sense of logic or reason (data, facts, stats)
75
Pathos
It appeals to an audience's emotions (personal story, powerful image)
76
Ethos
It appeals
to the audience based on the speaker’s authority (referencing experience, morals, intentions, reasons)
77
Verbal Irony
Conveying a meaning which is the opposite of the literal
meaning (isnt it a lovely day-when its raining)
78
Anaphora
The deliberate repetition of the first part of a clause/sentence (we shall... we shall.. we shall)
79
Epistrophe
The deliberate repetition of the last part of a clause/sentene (... the people... the people... the people)
80
Symploce
The deliberate repetition of both the first and last part of a
clause/sentence (we will - again... we will - again... we will - again)
81
Epizeuxis
Repetition of a single word, with no other words in between (go, go, go)
82
Dialect
The variation in language which is associated with a specific
geographical region (in newcastle, a baby is a bairn)
83
Sociolect
Dialect of a particular social group (lmk, thirsty - attention seeking)
84
Idiolect
An individuals use of language
85
Formal Lexis
Language which is more impersonal, uses Standard English
rather than contractions
86
Jargon
Special words or expressions used by a profession or group that
are difficult for others to understand (legalese)
87
Subject-Specific Lexis
Words that are specific to a certain subject
88
Informal Lexis
Language which is more relaxed, familiar and conversational –
uses colloquial/non-standard English (good grub)
89
Expletive
The formal term for swear words
90
Taboo
Words and phrases which are generally considered
inappropriate in certain situations (swearing)
91
Slang
A constantly changing type of language which is very informal
and is more commonly seen in speech (bromance, throw shade)
92
Contraction
A word which is formed by shortening and combining two
words with the use of an apostrophe (could've, don't)
93
Colloquialism
Informal language which often includes slang (ain't, y'all)
94
Register
A variety of language that is associated with a particular situation of use
95
Situation Of Use
A specific place, time and context in which communication
takes place
96
Frozen Register
Language that never changes (wedding vows)
97
Formal Register
Standard english (speeches, letters)
98
Professional Register
Less formal Standard English which doesn’t always completely
conform to Standard English rules (employee to employer)
99
Informal Register
Language between friends
100
Personal Register
Language between lovers or other close family and friends (pet names, inside jokes)
101
Vulgar Slang Register
Informal language that may cause offense
102
Academic Register
Language which is more academic (school lessons)
103
Informative Register
Language which conveys meanings/information (brochures)
104
Transactional Register
Language which supports transactional interactions in which
one person provides a service or good (buying/selling)
105
Fixed Expression
A well-used group of words that becomes accepted
and used as one long structure (on the other hand, utter disaster)
106
Semantic Change
The evolution of word usage – either through a shift in meaning
or the creation of new words
107
Etymology
The study of the origin of words and the way in which their
meanings have changed
108
Archaic Language
Old fashioned language which isn’t typically used any more (foorsooth)
109
Amelioration
A process where a word or phrase develops more positive
connotations (nice used to mean foolish)
110
Pejoration
A process where a word or phrase develops more negative
connotations (cunning used to mean knowledgeable)
111
Broadening
A type of semantic change where the meaning of a word
becomes broader or more inclusive (cookie)
112
Narrowing
A type of semantic change where the meaning of a word
becomes narrower or less inclusive (meat used to mean food in general)
113
Semantic Reclamation
Where a word which has previously carried negative
connotations is reclaimed by the community it was used against (gay, n-word)
114
Neologism
New words that enter a language (salvaging, doublethink)
115
Portmanteau
Where two or more words are joined together but parts are
omitted (pocket + monsters = pokemon)
116
Acronym
An abbreviation consisting of initial letters which then create a
new word (scuba - self-contained
underwater breathing
apparatus)
117
Initialism
An abbreviation consisting of initial letters pronounced
separately (fbi)
118
Eponym
A person after whom a discovery, invention, place, book, etc., is
named (fahrenheit - daniel g fahrenheit)
119
Compound Word
A word which is caused by two or more full words being joined
together (rainbow)
120
Truncation
Shortening a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more
syllables (ads, maths, app, bio, chem, intel)
121
Affixation
When an affix is added to create a new word
122
Back-Formation
When an affix is removed to create a new word (enthusiast (n) becomes to
enthuse (v))
123
Functional Shift
Where word classes of existing words are altered (empty (adj)
becomes to empty
(v))
124
Loan Word
A word adopted from a foreign language (cafe, croissant)
125
Recast Neologism
Where an existing word gains a completely new meaning (cookie)
126
Grammar
The whole system and structure of a language
127
Morphology
The study of how words are formed in language
128
Morpheme
The smallest unit of language – this could be a root word
or a collection of letters (apple, affix un)
129
Root Morpheme
A morpheme that can stand alone as a word (rose)
130
Bound Morpheme
A morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word, but
combine with a root word to form a new word (un)
131
Affix
A morpheme which could either come before, after or
within a root word (bi, trans, tion, ed)
132
Prefix
A morpheme that comes before a root word to modify its
meaning (un, anti)
133
Suffix
A morpheme that comes after a root word to modify its
meaning (ment, ly)
134
Infix
A word element which is inserted within the base form of
a word to create a new word or intensify meaning (fan - bloody - tastic)
135
Inflectional Function
A type of suffix which shows either plurality or verb tense (s, ed)
136
Derivational Function
A type of affix which changes the meaning of the root
word (tion, ment)
137
Word
A single distinct meaningful element of language
138
Participle
A word formed from a verb and used as an adjective, noun, or
to make compound verb forms (working, skiing, yelling)
139
Gerund
A present participle which acts like a noun (SKIING is a sport)
140
Participle Adjective
A participle which acts like an adjective (the BORED man, the BORING man)
141
Imperative
A verb which gives a command (listen)
142
Infinitive
The base form of a verb before it has been conjugated –
preceded by to… (to sing, to scream)
143
Split infinitive
Where another word is placed between the to and verb of an
infinitive (to freely think)
144
Transitive verb
A verb which is acting upon a direct object (they laughed at the snow)
145
Intransitive verb
A verb which is not acting upon a direct object (the girls laughed)
146
Phrasal Verb
A compound verb which combines two/three words to create
a single unit (give up, put up with)
147
Reflexive verb
A form of transitive verb whose subject and object refer to
the same person or thing: the object is a reflexive pronoun (i taught myself)
148
Reflexive Pronoun
Pronouns that are used when the subject and the object of a sentence are the same (myself, himself)
149
Conjugation
The variation of the form of a verb by which the tense,
number, and person are identified
150
Regular Verb
A verb which follows typical patterns of inflection (to walk)
151
Irregular Verb
A verb which doesn’t follow typical patterns of inflection (to be, to go)
152
Verb Tense
A verb which refers to the time of past, present and future
153
Past Tense
A tense expressing an action that has already happened (i loved my school)
154
Present Tense
A tense expressing an action that is currently happening (he lives in town)
155
Future Tense
A tense expressing an action that has not yet happened or a
state that does not yet exist (they will go to the cinema)
156
Phrase
A unit of language which conveys meaning (the fast, red squirrel)
157
Head Word
The key word that determines the phrase type – noun
phrase, adjectival phrase (a tiny WIZARD)
158
Noun Phrase
A noun with adjectives and/or determiner (the vibrant sunset)
159
Verb Phrase
A verb with an auxiliary or modal verb (i was singing, i was laughing)
160
Adverbial
A phrase which adds further information to the verb,
typically specifying place or time (the rabbit hopped AS FAST AS IT COULD)
161
Fronted Adverbial
An adverbial phrase which has been moved to the front
of the sentence and is usually separated from the main
clause with a comma (ALL NIGHT LONG, we danced)
162
Prepositional Phrase
A type of adverbial which specifies place, having a
preposition as the head word (the broom IN THE CORNER)
163
Main Verb
A verb which contains the meaning and in a verb phrase
is preceded by an auxiliary verb (she has EATEN, she might CRY)
164
Auxiliary Verb
A verb which precedes the main verb to form part of a
verb phrase – they can be categorised as primary and
modal (have, might)
165
Primary Auxiliary Verb
A verb which precedes the main verb to change the
grammar (have, be, do)
166
Modal Auxiliary Verb
A verb which shows degrees of certainty, desirability
obligation – they cannot occur alone (might, could, should)
167
Deontic Modality
Expressions that highlight a sense of obligation or
necessity (must, will)
168
Epistemic Modality
Expressions that highlight degrees of possibility (can, could)
169
Boulomaic Modality
Expressions that highlight wishes and desires (want, wish)
170
Participle
A word formed from a verb and used as an adjective,
noun, or to make compound verb forms (WORKING woman, SKIING, he is YELLING)
171
Past Participle
A verb inflection which refers to an action that was
started and completed entirely in the past and is usually seen with an auxiliary verb or used as an adjective (worked, wept, flew)
172
Syntax
The word order and grammatical structure of sentences
173
Present Participle
A verb inflection which refers to a continuous action and is usually seen with an auxiliary verb or used as an
adjective (waving, screaming)
174
Double Negative
Two negatives placed in the same sentence, thereby turning it into a positive (it cant possibly not rain = it will rain)
175
Tautology
Producing redundancy through saying the same thing
twice in different words (sams autobiography of his own life)
176
Clause
A grammatical unit which can either stand alone (main
clause) or support a section of the sentence (subordinate
clause) but it must contain a verb (she washed her hair (svo))
177
Main Clause
A clause which is complete by itself and as such, can form
an independent sentence (i walk the dog)
178
Subordinate Clause
A clause which is not complete by itself and as such,
cannot form an independent sentence (because the pig rolled)
179
Conditional Clause
A specific type of subordinate clause which express an
imagined situation or condition and the possible result of
that situation (if it rains)
180
Relative Clause
A specific type of subordinate clause which adds more
information to the noun (my gran, WHO IS 82, still lives in newcastle)
181
Co-ordination
Joining aspects of a sentence together using coordinating conjunctions (and, or)
182
Subordination
Joining aspects of a sentence together using
subordinating conjunctions (because)
183
Sentence
A unit of meaning which is formed from a clause / several
clauses
184
Simple Sentence
One complete independent clause (i burnt dinner)
185
Compound Sentence
Two or more independent clauses which are joined
together with a co-ordinating conjunction (i made tea and fell asleep)
186
Complex Sentence
An independent clause and a dependent / subordinate clause which are usually joined with either a
subordinating conjunction or a comma (whilst i was sleeping, i walked around my house)
187
Compound-Complex Sentence
At least two independent clauses and a subordinate
clause (when it was snowing, phillip read and drank hot chocolate)
188
Orthographic Sentence
A sentence without a verb (oh my god)
189
Declarative
A sentence which function makes a statement (trixie waited in anticipation)
190
Exclamative
A sentence which has an expressive function and ends
with an exclamation mark (this is amazing)
191
Imperative
A sentence function which is a command (stand up)
192
Interrogative
A sentence which asks a question (what day is it?)
193
Conditional
A main clause and a conditional clause, showing possibility (if it rains, i will cry)
194
Subject
The noun, pronoun or noun phrase that precedes and
governs the main verb (SHIRLEY danced)
195
Object
A noun, noun phrase, or a pronoun that is affected by the
action of a verb (the cat sat on the MAT)
196
Active Voice
Placing the subject before the verb (SV / SVO) (the pupils looked in confusion at mel)
197
Passive Voice
Placing the object and verb before the subject – it is
usually indicated by ‘by+subject’, however the subject is
sometimes omitted (OV / OVS) (mel was looked at in confusion by the pupils)
198
Vocative
A word or phrase used to address a reader or listener
directly, usually in the form of a personal name, title, or
term of endearment (have a lovely day SALLY)
199
Antecedent
The noun or noun phrase which a pronoun refers to (if a MAN has a TALENT and cant use IT hes FAILED)
200
Fronting/Front Focused
Placing elements of a clause before they would typically
appear to add emphasis (A VERY POSH CAMERA it was)
201
Suspension/End Focused
Delaying the most important information within a
sentence until the end (all you need is love)
202
Fronted Adverbial
An adverbial phrase which has been moved to the front
of the sentence and is usually separated from the main
clause with a comma (ALL NIGHT LONG we danced)
203
Syntactical Parallelism
When parts of the sentence are grammatically the same,
or are similar in construction - it can be a word, a phrase,
or an entire sentence (it was the best of times, it was the worst of times)
204
Normal Syntax
The typical word order and grammatical structure of
sentences (jane ate the cake)
205
Inverted Syntax
A change to the typical word order and grammatical
structure of sentences (a cake jane ate)
206
Phonology
The study of the sound systems of languages
207
Phonetics
The study of how speech sounds are made and received
208
Phoneme
The smallest unit of sound (k)
209
Consonant
One of the two main classes of sound where the breath is
at least partly obstructed (b, c, d)
210
Plosive
A harsh consonant sound produced by completely
stopping the flow of air (p, b, t, d, k, g)
211
Vowel
One of the two main classes of sound where the breath is
unobstructed (a, e, i, o ,u)
212
Monophthong
A sound formed by one vowel sound in a single syllable (pat)
213
Diphthong
A sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a
single syllable (b-oy)
214
IPA
International Phonetic Alphabet : a system of transcribing
the sound of words (d̠ʒ - j)
215
Schwa
A generic vowel sound (ə) that is usually pronounced in unstressed syllables (supply - səplaɪ)
216
Digraph
Two letters representing a single sound (gh (trough) ea (bread))
217
Trigraph
Three letters representing a single sound (tch (watch) oeu (manoruvre))
218
Articulator
Any of the vocal organs above the larynx (tongues, lips, teeth, palate)
219
Alveolar Ridge
A hard ridge behind the teeth
220
Hard Palate
A hard section at the roof of the mouth, just behind the
alveolar ridge
221
Soft Palate
A fleshy section at the back of the roof of the mouth
222
Epiglottis
Cartilage at the root of the tongue which covers the
windpipe during swallowing
223
Larynx
The organ containing the vocal cords
224
Glottis
Part of the larynx which contains the vocal cords
225
Vocal Cord/Fold
Muscles which moderate the airflow and vibrate to
change intensity and pitch
226
Alveolar
Sounds produced when the tongue hits the alveolar ridge (t, d, b, l, s, z)
227
Bilabial
Sound produced using both lips (b, p, m)
228
Dental
Sounds produced when the tongue is placed at the back
of the upper teeth (Th (θ, ð))
229
Fricative
A group of consonant sounds produced by forcing air
through a restricted passage (th, f, v, s, z, j, sh)
230
Glottal Stop
A sound produced when the vocal cords interrupt the
flow of air, often to replace a ‘t’ sound (water become wa - uh)
231
Labial
Sounds which are formed at the lips, comprising of both
bilabials and labio-dentals (p, m, f, v)
232
Labia-Dental
Sounds which are formed when the lower lip makes
contact with the upper teeth (f, v)
233
Nasal
Sounds which are produced through the nasal cavity (m, n, ng)
234
Palatal
Sounds produced when the tongue hits the hard palate (y)
235
Velar
Sounds produced when the tongue hits the soft palate (k, g, ng)
236
Paralinguistic Features
Non-lexical aspects of speech which include vocal and physical expression (whispering, laughing, breathlessness)
237
Prosodics
Non-verbal aspects of speech like pace, stress, pitch, intonation and volume
238
Pace
The speed
239
Stress
The prominence of a syllable in a word
240
Pitch
The highness/lowness
241
Intonation
The pitch of a speaker’s voice and how it changes
242
Volume
The loudness/quietness
243
Voiced Pause
A pause in a speech with sound
244
Voiceless Paused
A pause in a speech without sound
245
Alliteration
The repetition of the same sound at the beginning of
words (lovely lucy lives in london)
246
Assonance
Where the vowel sounds in words are similar or the same (low smokey holes)
247
Consonance
Repetition of consonant sounds (mike likes his new bike)
248
Sibilance
Repetition of ‘s’ or ‘sh’ sounds (salty salmon swims slowly)
249
Onomatopoeia
A word which sounds like the noise it’s describing (buzz)
250
Pronunciation
The manner in which sounds are articulated
251
Accent
The variation in the pronunciation of words (wiganese)
252
Received Pronunciation
An accent traditionally associated with high social status which is considered to be the standard accent and as
such, is used for IPA translation
253
Th-Fronting
When a speaker replaces th sounds with f or v (think - vink)
254
Rhythm
The patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables which are counted in feet
255
Syllable
The individual units of pronunciation which make up words (le - vel)
256
Monosyllabic
A word (or series of words) consisting of one syllable (she sat on the mat)
257
Polysyllabic
A word consisting of more than one syllable (tenn - is)
258
Letter-Figure Homophone
Where numbers are substituted for parts of words to create a word which sounds the same as its original (l8r, h8, m8)
259
Homograph
Words with the same spelling and the same/different
sound but a different meaning (tear/tear, lie/lie)
260
Heterophone
Words with the same spelling but a different sound and meaning (lead/lead, row/row)
261
Homophone
Words with the same sound but a different spelling and meaning (their/theyre/there)
262
Homonym
Words with the same sound and the same/ different spelling but a different meaning (pair/pear, row/row)
263
Graphology
Study of the visual aspects of a text
264
Layout
The way in which a text is physically structured
265
Portrait Orientation
When the rectangular page is placed vertically
266
Landscape Orientation
When the rectangular page is placed horizontally
267
Margin
The edge/boarder around the text
268
Indent
Start (a line of text) or position (a block of text) further from
the margin than the main part of the text
269
Justified
The arrangement of lines in a text so there are even margins
270
Centre Alignment
The arrangement of lines in a text so there are even margins
271
Left Alignment
The arrangement of lines in a text so that each one starts at
the left margin/gutter
272
Right Alignment
The arrangement of lines in a text so that each one starts at
the right margin/gutter
273
Column
Vertical blocks which are separated by gutters
274
Gutters
The gap between columns
275
Negative Space
The space within, between, and around objects, including the
margin
276
Iconic Image
Signs or images which are a direct representation (stop sign means stop)
277
Symbolic Image
Signs or images where meaning is drawn from a shared degree of knowledge
278
Multimodal Text
Texts that rely on the interplay of different modes
279
Orthographical Features
The features of the writing system such as spelling, capitalisation and punctuation
280
Capitalisation
Writing using capital letters, either for whole words or for the
beginning of word
281
Majuscule Letters
Large (capitalised) letters which are the height of an ascender
282
Miniscule Letters
Smaller (lower case) letters which are measured by the x-height
283
Typographical Features
The features of fonts used in texts such as font type, size and
colour
284
Font
The style, size, colour of the letters
285
Serif
A small stroke at the top/bottom of the letter
286
Serif Font
A font that uses serifs
287
Sans-Serif Font
A font which does not use serifs
288
Baseline
The line upon which most letters "sit" and below which
descenders extend
289
Cap Height
The height of a capital letter above the baseline for a particular typeface (H, E)
290
X-Height
The height of lower case letters – this is measured in relation
to the x
291
Descender
A part of a letter which descends below the foot of the letter x (g, y)
292
Ascender
A part of a letter which extends above the height of the letter
x (f, l)
293
Kern
The spacing between characters
294
Counter
The area of a letter that is entirely or partially enclosed by a
letter form or a symbol
295
Bold
Characters that are darker and heavier
296
Italics
Characters slopping to the right
297
Superscript
A small letter, numerical or symbol set beside/above the top of a fully sized character
298
Subscript
A small letter, numerical or symbol set beside/below the foot
of a fully sized character
299
Strikethrough
Characters with a horizontal line through their centre
300
Cursive Lettering
Writing where the letters
are joined in a series of round, flowing strokes
301
Printed Lettering
Writing where the letters are not joined together
302
Block Lettering
Writing using only capital letters
303
Graphetic Reinforcement
Making graphic design choices, particularly when choosing
typeface, which do support the meaning of the words
304
Graphetic Contradiction
Making graphic design choices, particularly when choosing
typeface, which do not support the meaning of the words
305
Pragmatics
Exploring how contextual factors such as background
knowledge influence meaning
306
Face
The public self image that every person projects in
communication
307
Lose Face
To publicly suffer a diminished self-image (embarrassment, humiliation)
308
Save Face
To act in a way which preserve your reputation or honour (apologise)
309
Positive Face Need
The individual desire of a person that their personality is
appreciated and liked by others (appreciation of personal achievements)
310
Negative Face Need
The basic personal rights of an individual and their desire
not to be imposed upon, intruded, or otherwise put upon (freedom of speech)
311
Face Threatening Act
An act which challenges the face of an interlocutor either verbally or paralinguistically
312
Indirect Face Threatening Act
An ambiguous speech act which is not necessarily directed at anyone specific - the receiver may "catch the
drift" but the speaker can also deny a meaning if they wish (i wonder how far a persons lips can stretch yet remain closed when eating)
313
Face Threatening Act With No Politeness
Does nothing to reduce the threat to the hearer's face and is therefore used in close relationships or when
information needs to be shared quickly (close your mouth when you eat)
314
Face Threatening Act With Positive Politeness
Makes the hearer feel a sense of closeness and belonging by highlighting friendliness (you have such beautiful teeth. i just wish i didnt see them when you eat)
315
Face Threatening Act With Negative Politeness
Making the hearer not feel threatened by showing
deference or apologising (i know you're very hungry and that steak
is a bit tough, but i would appreciate it if you would chew with your mouth closed)
316
Politeness Strategies
Speech acts that express concern for others and minimise
threats to self-esteem
317
Positive Politeness
A way to make a request without giving offence by highlighting friendliness (you have such beautiful teeth. i just wish i didnt see them
when you eat)
318
Honorific
Titles of address implying or expressing respect (miss, mrs)
319
Tag Question
A short question added at the end of a sentence, often inviting agreement with the speaker (its easy, isnt it)
320
Compliment
A polite expression of praise or admiration (you should be proud of yourself)
321
Common Ground
Shared opinions or interest
322
Negative Politeness
A way to make a request without giving offence by showing deference (i know you're very hungry and that steak is a bit tough, but i would appreciate it if you would chew with your mouth closed)
323
Hedge
A word or phrase that makes a statement less forceful or
assertive (is this PERHAPS your first time driving a car)
324
Schema
The bundle of knowledge about a concept, person or event
325
Embodied Knowledge
Knowledge that is associated with memories of physically experiencing something (sights and smells of a city)
326
Allusion
A figure of speech when a text or speaker refers to a saying, idea, event, etc. outside the text or conversation (adam and eve)
327
Cultural Allusion
A figure of speech that references a place, event or literary work, that is recognised by most people within a
culture (american not understanding british humour)
328
Idiom
An expression where the meaning is not predictable from the usual meanings of its constituent elements (over the moon)
329
Inference
Using assumed knowledge in order to determine meaning
330
Irony
The use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning (what nice weather we are having)
331
Presupposition
Any information which is taken for granted within discourse (jane no longer writes fiction = jane once wrote fiction)
332
Speech Act
An utterance considered as an action that does something (i now pronounce you husband and wife)
333
Locution
The literal meaning (a child asks to play in the rain, the mum says its raining - its raining)
334
Illocution
The implied meaning that the text producer wants you to understand (a child asks to play in the rain, the mum says its raining - no you cant)
335
Perlocution
The perceived meaning that the text receiver understands (a child asks to play in the rain, the mum says its raining - i cant play outside)
336
Felicity Conditions
The conditions that a speech act must meet if it appropriate or successful (you must be a registrar
to successfully say ‘I now
pronounce you husband
and wife’)
337
Sincerity Conditions
A type of felicity condition that requires speakers to be sincere about what they’re saying (you must actually mean 'im sorry')
338
Indirect Speech Act
Where there is a discrepancy between the literal meaning and the intended meaning (can you pass the salt – this is a request to pass
salt, not to find out if they are capable)
339
Conversational Maxim
Grice proposed 4 maxims (rules) for how conversations are structured
340
Maxim Of Manner
Be clear and avoid ambiguity/obscurity
341
Maxim Of Quality
Speak the truth
342
Maxim Of Quantity
Do not say too little or too much
343
Maxim Of Relevance
Be relevant and say things which are pertinent to the topic of conversation
344
Flouting A Maxim
Not following the conversational maxims
345
Co-operative Principle
Grice proposed that those involved in communication assume that both parties seek to co-operate with one
another to establish agreed meaning
346
Conversational Implicature
Grice stated this is where the speaker flouts one of the
conversational maxims
347
Deixis/Deictic Expression
A word or phrase within a text or conversation that can’t be understood unless you know the context
348
Person Deixis
indicate participants in a conversation, primarily through personal pronouns (you, he, she, we)
349
Spatial Deixis
Indicate location relative to the speaker or listener.
(here, there, this, that)
350
Temporal Deixis
Expressions that locate an event in time relative to the moment of speaking (now, verb tenses, today)
351
Discourse
Exploring whole text (written, spoken and multimodal)
construction at a level beyond lexis/grammar
352
Transient Text
A text that only lasts for a short time and as such is only temporary (sms)
353
Transcript
A written record of conversation that was originally spoken
354
CMC
Computer mediated conversation (email, online forum, sms)
355
Synchronous CMC
CMCs that happen at
the same time, without a time delay (im, chatrooms)
356
Asynchronous CMC
CMCs that have a time delay (email, blog, online forum)
357
Split Discourse
When participants are separated in time and/or space (email, phone call, postcard, advert)
358
Interdiscursivity
The use of discourses from one field as part of another (using science discourse in selling makeup)
359
Discourse Marker
Words, phrases and clauses which organise texts (however, as i was saying)
360
Cohesion
The way sentences or utterances join together to form a whole text
361
Addition
Showing similar ideas linking (furthermore, additionally)
362
Consequence
Showing cause and effect (as a result)
363
Comparison
Showing similarities and differences (likewise, however)
364
Temporal
Showing time (later)
365
Enumeration
Showing ordered ideas, often using ordinal numbers (firstly, next)
366
Summary
Showing a conclusion (to conclude)
367
Substitution
Replacing one set of lexical items for another (replacing nouns with pronouns)
368
Endophora
Making reference to something within the text (i saw SALLY yesterday, SHE was lying on the beach)
369
Anaphora
Referencing back to an already stated lexical item (MILLY polished HER crown)
370
Anaphor
A word or phrase that refers back to an earlier word or phrase (milly polished HER crown)
371
Cataphora
Referencing forwards to an as yet undisclosed lexical item (HE who should not be named is VOLDERMORT)
372
Cataphor
A word or phrase that refers forward to a later word or
phrase (HE who should not be named is voldermort)
373
Antecedent
The noun or noun phrase which a pronoun refers to (if a MAN has a talent and cant use it, HES failed)
374
Exophora
Making reference to something outside the text (look at that)
375
Interlocutor
A person who is engaged in a dialogue or conversation
(either spoken or written)
376
Conversational Floor
The ‘space’ containing a conversation – participants
can share the floor, or hold the floor
377
Non-Fluency Feature
Anything that removes fluency in spoken language
378
Voiced Pause
A pause in speech with sound (umm, ermm, err)
379
380
Unvoiced Pause
A pause in speech without sound
381
False Start
When a speaker begins to speak, pauses, then recommences (he.. er she was late)
382
Filler
A type of voiced pause where the speaker hesitates by using an apparently meaningless word or phrase so they have thinking time (right, okay)
383
Hesitation Particle
A form of filled pause which is common in everyday
speech and often precedes a dispreferred response (hmmm, ermm, mmmm)
384
Utterance
The act of making a vocal sound
385
Supportive Minimal Vocalisation
Where a second speaker utters minimal responses to support what is being said (yeah, mhm)
386
Constraints
Something that limits or restricts someone’s behaviour
or actions (social situation)
387
Fixed Expression
A conventional and routine expression which is used in
colloquial discourse (as a matter of fact, at the end of the day)
388
Situational Characteristics
The situation or context in which a discourse event takes place which motivates the speaker or writer to
adopt a particular register
389
Adjacency Pair
Dialogue which follows a set pattern of question/answer (how are you, good thanks)
390
Insertion Sequence
A sequence of turns that intervenes between the first and second parts of an adjacency pair (id like some paint, how many tubes, UH WHATS THE PRICE, THREE POUND A TUBE, ill have five then)
391
Preferred Response
A response to a speech act which is culturally expected (want to join us for dinner tomorrow, id love to)
392
Dispreffered Response
A response to a speech act which is not expected (would you like to come for dinner tomorrow, uhmm well.. i told cathy i would join her for dinner tomorrow instead)
393
Exchange Structure
The routine structure for short interactions, usually initiation, response and follow-up (whats the time, 6:30, thanks)
394
Turn Taking
The way in which participants take turns in interactions
395
Transition Relevance Place
The time in a conversation at which the turn of talk could legitimately pass from one speaker to another
395
Overlap
When speech acts overlap and one speaker rapidly ceases to speak
396
Simultaneous Speech
Where speakers speak at the same time
397
Topic Change
A natural phenomenon in conversations where
speakers move topics to aid the flow of the discourse
398
Skip-Connector
Returning back to previous topics of conversation (anyway, coming back)
399
Closed Question
A question which needs only a yes or no answer (do you like peas)
400
Open Question
A question which demands more information than a simple yes or no - it passes the turn to the other person fully and expects them to contribute to the exchange (whats your favourite animal)
401
Adjunct
Non-essential elements of clauses
that can be omitted without changing the meaning (ill see you IN THE MORNING)
402
Disjunct
An adverb that expresses a writer or speaker’s attitude towards the material that follows (SADLY not one of them lived)
403
Repair
The correction of a misunderstanding or error made
within a conversation (i mean...)
404
Phatic Talk
Language that is devoid of content but that supports
social relationships (hello)
405
Unfinished Sentence
A feature of spoken discourse where sentences are left
unfinished either because of pre-existing knowledge or
paralinguistic aspects of the interaction (so i didnt...)
406
Interrupted Construction
Sentences that are dropped half-way through in favour of another (so it think that its... what im trying to say is that i dont hate them)
407
Elision
When sounds or syllables are left out of speech to make pronunciation easier (dya, bacon n eggs)
408
Ellipsis
When words are left out of a sentence without affecting the meaning ([are] you ready yet, [im] ready now)
409
Genre
The categorisation of a text based upon expected shared conventions
410
Discourse Event
another term for a text
411
Mode
The medium of communication (writing, speech)
412
Multi-Modal Text
when texts mix features of spoken and written modes
413
Intertextuality
when a text makes reference to another existing text for effect
414
Text Receiver/Audience
the reader/listener of the text
415
Implied Text Receiver/Audience
the intended receiver of a text
416
Actual Text Receiver/Audience
the actual receiver of a text
417
Audience Positioning
how the audience is supposed to react to the subject of the
text
418
Discourse Community
a group of people communicating about a particular topic,
issue, or in a particular field
419
Text Producer
someone who creates a text
420
Implied Text Produce/Writer
the assumed creator of a text
421
Actual Text Producer/Writer
the actual creator of a text
422
Text Producer Positioning
how a text producer places or orientates themself to the
subject being presented and towards the audience or reader
423
Purpose
the reason a text has been created
424
primary purpose
the main reason that the text has been created (informing advert)
425
Secondary Purpose
the alternative reasons that the text has been created (informing advert which also entertains)
426
Allegory
a literary work in which the characters and events represent particular qualities or ideas relating to morals, politics or religion (animal farm)
427
Analogy
where two unrelated objects are compared for their shared qualities (just as a caterpillar must go through metamorphosis to become a butterfly, a person must go through struggles to grow stronger)
428
Anecdote
a short and interesting story, or an amusing event, often proposed to support or demonstrate a point
429
Antagonist
a character who opposes the main character (voldermort)
430
Antithesis
a person or thing that is the direct opposite of someone or something else (it was the best of times, it was the worst of times)
431
Aphorism
a short statement that is intended to express a general truth (if it aint broke dont fix it)
432
Apostrophe
addressing a person who is not present, or a thing that is personified (o romeo o romeo, time how quickly you pass)
433
Archetype
a typical example of something, or the original model of something from which others are copied (the hero: harry potter)
434
Asyndeton
where conjunctions are left out between words or parts of a sentence, often creating a list-like style (i came i saw conquered)
435
Bildungsroman
a narrative or novel about events and experiences in the life of the main character as they mature and become an adult (great expectations)
436
Caricature
a highly exaggerated representation of a character in a text, often for comic effect (tom in the great gatsby)
437
Catharsis
the release of strong or repressed emotions, usually by an audience (gatsbys death)
438
Characterisation
the act of creating and describing characters in literature, including their traits and psychological make-up
439
Chiasmus
when words, grammatical constructions or concepts are repeated in reverse order (fair is foul foul is fair)
440
Cliché
something or someone that is not at all original, surprising or interesting because it has very often been seen before (the hero saves the day)
441
Climax
the highest point of tension or drama in a piece of writing (gatsby and tom fight in the plaza hotel)
442
Denouement
the resolution of conflict in a narrative plot structure (blanches departure)
443
Deus Ex Machina
an unnatural or very unlikely end to a story or event, that solves or removes any problems easily (the martians in war of the worlds are just wiped out by bacteria not by the humans)
444
Dialogue
the exchange of spoken words between characters in a piece of writing
445
Direct Characterisation
when an author explicitly tells a reader directly what a character is like
446
Dramatic Irony
when the audience or reader knows something the characters in the story do not
447
Dystopian
an cruel or unfair society, especially an imaginary society in the future, in which there is a lot of hardship or suffering (the handmaids tale)
448
Epigraph
a poem, quotation, or sentence, usually placed at the beginning of a piece of writing (the quote from thomas parke d'invillers at the start of the great gatsby)
449
Exposition
the description or explanation of background information within a work of literature (nick provides us with info about him, the characters around him and long island in the summer)
450
Extended Metaphor
a metaphor that is further developed throughout all or part of a piece of writing (the farm in animal farm is an extended metaphor for the russain revolution and rise of soviet communism)
451
Falling Action
the part of the plot that occurs after the climax has been reached and the major conflict has happened (aftermath of gatsbys death)
452
Flashback
a device that moves the reader from the present moment in a chronological piece of writing to a scene in the past (offred 10,000 times in handmaids)
453
Foreshadowing
a device used by a writer to provide hints or clues to the reader or audience about what will happen later on in the text (nick foreshadows gatsbys death at the start)
454
Form
the type or genre of a text that a writer has chosen to use
455
Hamartia
the flaw in character which leads to the downfall of the protagonist in a tragedy (macbeths ambition)
456
Hubris
excessive pride or self-confidence (macbeth)
457
Imagery
the use of words to describe ideas or situations
458
Indirect Characterisation
revealing details about a character without explicitly or directly stating what they are like
459
In Media Res
a story which begins in the middle of events, without any introduction
460
Intertextuality
the relationship a text may have with other texts
460
Juxtaposition
the placement of two or more things side by side, often in order to bring out their differences
461
Litotes
understatement used for rhetorical effect (i wouldnt say no, thats not a bad idea)
462
Malapropism
the unintentional misuse of a word by confusion with one of similar sound, often with humorous results (escape goat - scapegoat)
463
Monologue
an extended speech uttered by one character, either to others or as if alone (blanches monologue about her past)
464
Motif
a recurring image or idea in a piece of writing (polka music, blue piano, cat screech in streetcar)
465
Narrative
the description of a series of events, usually in a novel
466
Omniscient Narrator
a narrator who is all-knowing about plot, characters as well as characters motivations and emotions (great expectations)
467
Oxymoron
a figure of speech that puts together opposite elements (deafening silence, bittersweet)
468
Paradox
a statement that contradicts itself, or that must be both true and untrue at the same time (less is more, war is peace)
469
Parallelism
where similar ideas are arranged in phrases, sentences, and paragraphs that balance one element with another of equal importance and similar wording (she enjoys reading, writing and swimming)
470
Parody
a humorous piece of writing, drama, or music which imitates the style of a well-known person or represents a familiar situation in an exaggerated way (south park)
471
Pathetic Fallacy
the use of inanimate objects, most commonly the weather, to reflect human feelings and tone (thunder in macbeth)
472
Persona
the narrative voice that a writer adopts for a specific piece of writing
473
Personification
giving human characteristics to an inanimate object, abstract thing or an animal (the wind whispered)
474
Polysyndeton
the overuse of the same connective
475
Prolepsis
where the order of events in a narrative is disrupted so that a future plot point is told earlier in the narrative than it actually occurs (scrooge seeing visions of his future)
476
Prose
written language in its ordinary form rather than set out as poetry
477
Protagonist
the chief character in a literary work (harry potter)
478
pun
the humorous use of a word or phrase that has several meanings or that sounds like another word (eggcellent, you cant tuna fish)
479
Repetition
the intentional repeating of certain words, phrases or other literary devices in a text
480
Rhetorical Question
a question that is used for dramatic effect that does not expect an answer
481
Rising Action
the section of the narrative that leads towards its climax (driving to the plaza hotel)
482
Satire
the use of humour, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticise people’s stupidity or vices (the power)
483
Soliloquy
a dramatic speech uttered by one character speaking aloud while alone on the stage (macbeth)
484
Stream Of Consciousness
a type of narration where a character’s every thought and feeling is expressed directly to the reader (offred)
485
Symbol
any image or thing that stands for something else
486
Symbolism
a literary device in which a writer uses one thing to represent something more abstract (serena joys garden)
487
Synecdoche
a figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa (all hands on deck - hands represent the whole crew, the city that never sleeps - city refers to the people)
488
Tautology
the use of different words to say the same thing twice in the same statement (frozen ice, evening sunset, short summary)
489
Tone
the attitude that a character, narrator or writer takes towards a given subject
490
Trope
an idea, phrase or image that is recurrent in a writer's work (the chosen one, love triangle, wise old mentor)
493
Compound Verb
a verb phrase made up of multiple words that function as a single verb (look over, turn on)
