League of Nations (B1)

Question 1

THE COST OF WW1

Answer 1

(1914-1918):
* 65 million mobilized
* 9 million military deaths
* 13 million civilian deaths
* 21 million wounded
* France: 19% of men aged 18-40 died
* 9.5 million permanently disabled/suffered
* At least 10 million refugees
Economic Cost:
* Est. $338 billion (direct)
* Total war: mobilization of all resources
* Livestock/metal taken from rural areas, food shortage
* Industrial workers replaced by women
* Trade/capital flows between nations disrupted
* Paying for war, huge increase in taxes, national debt
* US top tax rate: 1913 - 7%, 1918 - 77%
* 1914-1919 British national debt:
from £650 million to £7.8 billion
Impact:
* Economic + human costs = calls for change
* Universal male suffrage
* Feminist/socialist/anti-colonial movements grew
* Govt took greater role in economy + social life
* Establishment of welfare systems
* “Lost Generation”
* Philosophies/arts questioned traditional values

Question 2

WOODROW WILSONS 14 POINTS

Answer 2

Aims: Just/lasting peace, reflect US values.
Key Themes:
* Open Diplomacy: No secret treaties.
* Freedom of the Seas: Free navigation.
* Free Trade: Removal of economic barriers.
* Arms Reduction: National disarmament.
* National Self-Determination: Peoples choose own govt.
Significance:
* First time collective security suggested.
* Basis for US position at Paris Peace Conf.
* Many principles in Treaty of Versailles.
* Reflected broader criticism of existing order.
* Principles still upheld in modern international law (e.g., UN).
Avoiding War in Future: Collective security > alliances/militarism.

Question 3

TREATIES RESULTING FROM PARUS OEACE CONFERENCE

Answer 3

Treaty of Versailles (Germany, 1919):
* Central Powers responsible for war.
* Germany lost territory, limited army, paid reparations.
* Created resentment fueling WWII.
Treaty of St. Germain (Austria, 1919):
* Austria-Hungary breakup.
* Austria lost territory.
Treaty of Trianon (Hungary, 1920):
* Hungary lost significant territory/population.
Treaty of Sevres (Ottoman Empire, 1920):
* Non-Turkish regions lost (mandates).
* Turkish War \rightarrow Treaty of Lausanne (1923): modern Turkish borders.
General Outcomes:
* New nations created (self-determination).
* Allied powers gained mandates.
* Population exchanges.
* Resentment/instability in defeated nations.

Question 4

POLAND POST WW1

Answer 4

• Re-established: Independent after 123 years of partition (Russia, Prussia, Austria).
• Point 13 (14 Points): Independent Poland w/ secure access to sea.
• New Polish State: Created through Treaty of Versailles.
• “Polish Corridor”: Land from Germany to give sea access.
• Borders: Fought for (USSR, Czech) until 1921. Western borders not fully recognized until 1973.
• Population (1921): \sim27 million, 64% rural, \sim1/3 minorities (Ukrainians, Germans, Jews, etc.).
• Creation reflected self-determination (partially): 1/3+ Poles lived outside new borders.

Question 5

YUGOSLAVIA

Answer 5

• “Land of the Southern Slavs”: Federation of Balkan countries.
• Included: Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Slovenia, Macedonia (later).
• Prior to WWI: Serbia & Montenegro independent. Others part of Austria-Hungary.
• Creation (post-WWI): Goal of Pan-Slavic nationalism.
• Populous: South Slavs, primarily Serbs.
• Ideology: Supported by Serbian elite \rightarrow tensions with Austria-Hungary.
• Internal Issues: Tension/disunity between ethnic groups (Orthodox Serbs, Catholic Croats/Slovenes, Bosnian Muslims).
• Serbs dominant: Perceived domination in govt/culture.
• Territory: Contained 500,000 Slovenes given to Italy.
• Creation (partially) defied self-determination: Serb dominance, many non-Serbs within borders.

Question 6

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Answer 6

• Comprised of: Union of Czech & Slovak peoples.
• Largest ethnic group: Czechs (~51%), Slovaks (~16%).
• Included: Germans (~23%), Hungarians (~5%), Ukrainians (~3%).
• Interwar Period: Democratic state in Central Europe. More industrialized, economically wealthy.
• Multi-party democracy: All ethnic groups represented in govt.
• Ethnic Diversity: Caused issues.
• 1919: War with Poland over Cieszyn Silesia.
• Sudetenland: 3 million German speakers annexed by Germany (Munich Agreement).
• By late 1930s: Slovaks felt oppressed by Czech majority. Exploited by Hitler to take control.
• Creation (partially) defied self-determination: Significant German, Hungarian, Ukrainian minorities. Slovak dissatisfaction. Czech dominance.

Question 7

CREATION OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Answer 7

• Idea: Society of nations cooperating to keep peace.
• Post-WWI: Informal league of great powers.
• 1919 Paris Peace Conference: Formal creation.
• Wilson’s primary concern: Avoiding future war. Mechanism for solving international disputes.
• LON’s aims: Address war causes, discuss problems to prevent war.
• Structure: Assembly, Council (Great Powers), Secretariat.
• Key Principles:
  
  • Collective Security: Attack on one = attack on all.
  • International Cooperation: Trade/working conditions/diplomacy.
  • Arbitration: Settle disputes through negotiation.
  • Open Diplomacy.
• Jan Smuts: LON should be “great organ of ordinary peaceful life”.
• Limitations: Strong organization on paper, limited enforcement/power.

Question 8

STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Answer 8

• Origins: Proposed by 14 Points.
• Initial Members: 42 nations \rightarrow 58 by 1934.
• Key Members: Britain, France, Italy, Japan (permanent). Germany (1926-33), USSR (1934-39). US never joined.
• Organs:
  
  • Assembly: All members, 1 vote each, met yearly.
  • Council: Smaller, executive body. Permanent (GB, FR, IT, JP), non-permanent elected.
  • Secretariat: Civil service, led by Secretary-General.
• Decisions: Unanimous consent needed (weakness).
• By joining, members agreed to be bound by decisions.
• Enforcement: Moral condemnation, economic sanctions (often ineffective), collective military action (rare, authorized by Council).
• Special Commissions: Focused on international issues (justice, refugees, labour).

Question 9

PROBLEMS WITH THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Answer 9

Issues of Representation:
* Dominated by victorious Allies.
* No input from defeated Central Powers/USSR initially.
* US refusal to join weakened it.
* Absence of major powers (Japan, China later).
Need for Unanimous Agreement: Reduced strength, effectiveness of decisions. Difficult to achieve consensus.
States Unwilling to Act: Prioritized national interests over LON aims.
Lack of Enforcement:
* Powerful nations (particularly Britain, France) unwilling to accept limitations or provide military forces.
* LON had no armed forces of its own.
* Relied on members’ willingness to act.
* Many nations desired to be involved in another war after WWI.
* Nations disagreed with LON, often acted outside its decisions.
More Likely to Promote Own Interests: Less committed to principles, undermined organization.

Question 10

LEAGUE OF NATIONS MANDATES

Answer 10

Mandates
* Post-WWI: Allies gained former Central Powers’ territories. Dilemma: annexation vs. independence.
* Belief: Some territories not ready for self-rule.
* LON Mandate System: Compromise between annexation and self-determination.
* Article 22 Covenant: Established mandates.
* “Tutelage”: Territory overseen by “advanced nations” (Mandatories) on behalf of LON.
* Goal: Develop territory for benefit of native population.
* Timeframe: Extent of control until nation ready for independence.
* LON Council: Reported on conditions annually.
Categories of Mandates:
* Class A: Former Ottoman Empire. Advanced societies, deemed ready for independence within years/decades.
* Class B: Former German colonies in Central Africa. Required greater oversight, could not build military/naval bases.
* Class C: Former German colonies in SW Africa & Pacific islands. Administered as integral parts of Mandatory’s territory.
Examples:
* Class A: Iraq (Britain), Syria/Lebanon (France), Palestine (Britain).
* Class B: Tanganyika (Britain), Cameroons (Britain/France).
* Class C: South-West Africa (South Africa), Pacific Islands (Japan/Australia/NZ).
Issues:
* Often disguised annexation.
* Mandatory powers’ interests often prioritized.
* Led to future conflict/instability.

Question 11

LON DISARMAMENT TREATIES

Answer 11

• LON Covenant (Art. 8): Reduce armaments to lowest point consistent with national safety.
• Many nations involved: Supported disarmament for moral/economic reasons.
• Limited success: Difficult to agree.
• Proposals: Banning chemical warfare, limiting arms, private manufacture control.
• 1921 Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments: Little progress.
  1922 Washington Naval Treaty:
• Signed by US, Britain, France, Italy, Japan.
• Prevented arms race by limiting battleships, battlecruisers, aircraft carriers.
• Set tonnage ratios (e.g., US:Britain = 5:5).
• Other categories of warships limited, submarines not limited.
  1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact:
• “General Treaty for Renunciation of War.”
• Signed by many countries.
• Pledged not to use war to resolve disputes.
• Signatories promised to not use war as instrument of national policy.
• US Senate ratified, showed US gov’t committed to international disarmament.
• However, continued to take part in aggressive wars/conflict.
• Did not effectively outlaw war, came up with pretexts.
• Countries allowed to interpret law according to “vital interests.”
• Many countries (e.g., Britain) reserved right to use war to “protect vital interests.”

Question 12

EARLY TESTS OF THE LON

Answer 12

• 1920: Vilna (Poland/Lithuania): Poland occupied Lithuanian capital. LON protested, Poland withdrew partially. Failure.
• 1921: Upper Silesia (Poland/Germany): Plebiscite to decide division. LON oversaw, largely accepted. Success.
• 1921: Finland/Sweden (Aaland Islands): Both threatened war over islands. LON ruled for Finland. Sweden accepted. Success.
• 1923: Italy/Greece (Corfu Incident): Italy bombarded Corfu after Italian general killed in Greece. LON condemned Italy, but Italy only withdrew after Greek compensation. Failure (major power defied LON).
• 1925: Bulgaria/Greece: Border dispute, Greece invaded Bulgaria. LON condemned Greece as aggressor, ordered withdrawal and compensation. Greece complied. Success.
  Overall: Early mixed results. Success in smaller disputes, failure when major powers defied it. Showed weakness when lacking enforcement power.

Question 13

OTHER EARLY ACTIVITIES (LON)

Answer 13

Refugees:
* Helped return ~400,000 POWs.
* Nansen passports for stateless people.
* Helped settle refugees in new countries.
Health:
* Fought disease (leprosy).
* Sponsored research on epidemics.
* Improved sanitation globally.
Social Problems:
* Fought drug trafficking, slavery.
* Improved working conditions (ILO).
* Protected minorities.
Economic Assistance:
* Helped Austria & Hungary avoid collapse.
* Provided loans, restructured economies.
Overall: Focused on international cooperation and humanitarian issues. Achieved some successes despite limitations in political disputes.