Learning and Cognition Flashcards

Question

What is punishment?

Answer 1

-Punishment occurs when behavior is punished (weakened) when the learner experiences an undesirable consequence for their behavior. -Behaviours followed with punishment, are unlikely to be repeated, opposite of reinforcment.

Answer 2

A punisher is any consequence of behaviour that makes the behaviour less likely to occur in the future -punishers can either be positive or negative.

Answer 3

-Animals will stop producing a behaviour if the consequence is a presentation of an unpleasant stimulus Positive punisher:Any unpleasant stimulus that weakens behaviour when added as a negative consequence of the behaviour.

Answer 4

-A behaviour will stop being produced if the consequence is that something desirable will get taken away. Negative punisher: Any pleasant stimulus that weakens behaviour when taken away.

Answer 5

Contingency: Relationship between the behavior and the punisher must be clear. Contiguity: Punisher must follow behavior swiftly. Consistency: The punishment needs to occur for every occurrence of the behavior.

Answer 6

-Positive punishment rarely works for longterm behaviour change, it tends to only supress behaviour. -It does not teach a more desireable behaviour, only indicates which behaviours are undesirable. -Produces negative feelings within the learner which do not promote new learning. -Harsh punishments may teach the learner to impose the same harsh punishments on others, known as social learning. -If the threat of punishment is removed, the behaviour will return.

Answer 7

-Stop reinforcing the problematic behavior, in other words undergo the extinction process. -Reinforce alternative behavior that is both constructive and incompatible with the problematic behavior.

Answer 8

Antecedents are a form of conditioned stimulus, they are cues that signal the behaviour of a reinforcer.Antecendent stimuli drive habitual behaviours. They can be; -Stimuli in the environment that can become antecedents for operantly conditioned behaviour. -Or classically conditioned associations can become antecedents forcues (antecedents) for operant behaviour. -An individual can structure their environment with antecedent behaviour to "cue" positive behaviour.

Answer 9

Involves: Antecedent--->Behavior--->Consequence.

Answer 10

Antecedent becomes discriminant stimuli when it signals which of 2 or more behaviours will be rewarded in a specific context. -i.e in training animals different hand signals/verbal commands signal which behaviour to reward.

Answer 11

A cognitive map is a mental representation of the spatial characteristics of a familiar environment. -Proven by Tolman's experiment which showed rats create "spatial maps" of their environment. Rather than a series of chained responses to external cues."observations suggest that rats really develop wider spatial maps which include more than the mere trained paths".

Answer 12

Learning can occur in the absence of both reward and punishment.As demonstrated with Tolman he challenged traditional behaviourist accounts of learning and uncovered this "hidden" type of learning. -Tolmans experiment demonstrated that rewards affected whether the learned behaviour will be demonstrated, not whether the learning has actually occurred. Group c of rats which was rewarded afterwards, displayed learning however not until the reward was given. -This suggests that these rats were learning prior to reinforcement through forming their own cognitive maps, allowing them to demonstrate their learning once rewarded.

Answer 13

Bundura suggested observational learning was occurs through providing an example of how learning can occur indirectly without direct reinforcement or punishment. Observational learning takes place through active judgements and constructiveness processes that involves cognitive processes of mental representation. This therefore means that learning can occur vicariously and socially through observing other people known as "models". -Modelling consequences involve positive and negative reinforcement.

Answer 14

Positive reinforcement:If an individual observers a "model" they will symbolically reinstate the modelled agressive response and engage in considerable positive social reinforcement. Banduras study indicates that the peformance of agressive acts is influenced by mental representations of observed consequences. Positive punishment:Vicarious punishment occurs when individuals avoid certain behaviours after observing others being punished for those behaviours.Banduras study found that knowledge remained latent in the model-punished group until a reward was introduced.

Answer 15

-Memory is a set of storage systems and processes for encoding, storing and retrieving information acquired through our senses, relating information to previous acquired knowledge and experience. -Memory can also be thought to be a mental representation of knowledge within memory systems stored within neural networks of the brain.

Answer 16

-Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffron during the early days of cognitive revolution. -proposed that memory exsists in 3 "stores", "Stores" refering to 'think systems' -These included; sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory. -the 3 stores were distinguished by how duration and capacity of memory.

Answer 17

-Encoding -Storage -Retrieval

Answer 18

-involves acquiring information from experiences and mental processes. -Involves registration of information in the sensory regions of brain (elements of experience and the interpretation and integration of experience with prior knowledge).

Answer 19

-During the storage stage, encoded representations are re-consilidated into memory traces and stored into neurons throughout the brain. -With different types of memories stored within different neuron networks. -the storage capacity and duration differ between memory systems.

Answer 20

-How neurons within the visual cortex store information about sights that are part of an experience or... -How neurons in amygdala store information about the emotions we experience.

Answer 21

-Retrieval is the "remembering", "knowing" and "doing" -Retrevial is an reconstructive and error prone process that aims to reconsolidate learning after retrieval has occured. It is also highly contextual, it relies on the right cues being present in order for the information to be accurately detained. -Examples include; personal reminisce of experience, recalling facts, executing refined motor skills and continued response. -the retrieval process involves both implict and explicit retrival processes.

Answer 22

-Sensory memory system is a temporary, sensory based representation of input received through sensory channels. -Sensory memory creates a "buffer" which can be thought of us a waiting area between early sensory processes and later cognitive processes. -few memories stored, brief duration, large capacity.Involves both audio and visual memory.

Answer 23

-Sperling experiment used a series of experients to determine visual sensory memory duration and capacity. -Used full report vs partial report methods. -Participants were asked to remember a number of letters shown to them that they could remember from an array presented. -Participants noted that they felt as though they had "brief" visual memory of the letters, but on average could only recite 4. -Results suggested that although visual sensory memory can intially capture large amounts of information, the duration of which this memory lasted was short.

Answer 24

Problems included: -Attention constraints, the full report method may have overwhelmed participants. -Rapid decay may have been caused by an encoding failure instead. -Perceptual strategies such as grouping may have been used to aid recall. Which was not accounted for in the full report method. -Individual variability: differences in attention or cognitive abilities would have affected individuals abilities to attain information.

Answer 25

Decided to instead use a partial report method, used audio cues as well as visual.As he believed (visual sensory memory/iconic memory) had greater capacity than his first experiment found. -Using audio cues as well as visual prevented visual overload, allowed for faster cueing as audio cues are faster than visual,avoided spatial conflict between visual stimuli and reduced interferance by seperating cue modaility (auditory) with stimulus modality (visual).

Answer 26

-much larger estimate of visual sensory memory capacity. -Indicates that the full-report method underestimated capacity of iconic memory by confounding reporting method with the duration of iconic trace. he ultimately found through altering partial report method, systematically varying the retention interval turning off the stimulus array and presenting the cue for the line to report: That the duration of iconic memory: reduces to 1 item after 500 milliseconds (half a second)

Answer 27

-Temporary store in which we integrate current sensory experiences with long term memory to achieve current goals. -Short term memory is the conscious representation of "the present moment"

Answer 28

Duration:15-30 seconds Capacity: Limited

Answer 29

Model of maintenance rehearsal is a primary encoding mechanism, resulting in a transfer of information to the long-term memory: -Information in STM comes from sensory registers and retrieval from LTM -Encoding in STM relates to information from sensory stores to long-term memory.

Answer 30

Measuring Verbal short term memory capacity: -This is assessed using a digital span task. -It worked by calling participants to immediately recall verbally presented digits. Length of sequence is increased by 1 item after each successful attempt to determine the upper limit of span. The experimental findings: Average adult span is 7(+/-)items: Seven plus or minus 2, items of information

Answer 31

-Known as the Brown-Peterson task -Involved recalling 3 constants, memory testing at 3-second intervals. -Used a filled retention interval to prevent rehearsal.

Answer 32

Ultimately, verbal rehearsal keeps information active in STM and strengthens the trace, increasing the chance it will be stored in LTM

Answer 33

Serial position effect refers to the immediate free recall of lists of numbers or words affected by the position of items in the studied list. * Rehearsal in STM leads to LTM transfer * Primacy reflects LTM, recency reflects STM. Ultimately it suggests that memory is effected by order in which the events occur, primary effect means that the first couple of items are easy to remember whilst recency effect means that the last of the list is more likely to remember.

Answer 34

levels of processing tested the hypothesis that "deep" processing during the encoding process will produce stronger long-term memory. This challenged the original model of STM which suggested it was just a system for shallow maintenance of information. "Levels of processing" showed that "shallow" processing is less effective for long-term retention.

Answer 35

-"phonological loop" (Left hemisphere fronto-temporial lobe)which is a mental workspace for manipulating auditory and verbal information. Important for language development and verbal reasoning tasks. Involves working memory, you have to "do" something with the information, not just maintenance rehearsal. -Visuo-spatial sketchpad: (right occipital-parietal network).Temporary store for representations of visual and spatial information such as faces, objects, written words and cognitive maps. -enables mental manipulation of visually and spatially represented information such as mental rotation of objects, visual and spatial mnemonics, mental arithmetic and cognitive maps of information. the central executive: (pre-frontal cortex). Specifically dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex. Used in planning and coordinating complex behavior like goal orientation, focus attention, swithcing between tasks. Episodic buffer: (paritetal cortex, the association cortex), perceptual processing, intergrating multi modal information

Answer 36

-Its explicit, involves knowing what, when and where -includes the reminisce of personally experienced events and facts, locations, and autobiographical information. -It is dependent on the hippocampus

Answer 37

-Its implicit, its the unciousness knowledge of how we do stuff -Includes motor skills,habits and cognitive skills like reading. -It is not dependent on hippocampus. -operant and conditional learning depend on non-declarative memory, this is why we get better at things with practice.

Answer 38

-PS responsible for visual spatial information and VSS responsible for auditory-verbal information are independent but interacting sub systems. -PL and VSS access and update language based and visual representations of long term memory. -The central executive system then directs attention to and retrives information from PL and VSS for integretation ito episodic buffer. -Then the multi-model memory traces are formed in the episodic buffer and then stored in episodic long term memory.

Answer 39

-Episodic memory:The vivid first person recall of personally experienced events. it is contexualised memory allowing us to control when and where, thought of as a "Mental time travel" it allows us to recall the past and present. -Semantic memory:General knowledge, facts about the world and yourself.It is what/why knowledge and includes abstract knowledge, including abstract knowledge of ones self.

Answer 40

procedural memory:Learning and performing of motor and cognition skills.It can be thought of as "priming" and is often determined by demonstrating a change in the ability to identify a stimulus as a result of prior exposure to stimulus, or a related stimulus. Associative -Classical conditioning:Learning to attend to a formally neutral stimulus because it has been associated with a meaningful status. -Operant conditioning: Learning to produce/avoid behaviour because it has been associated with a rewarding/punishing consequence. Non-associative learning -Habituation:learning to ignore stimulation because its trivial -sensitization:learning to attend to potentially threatening stimulus.

Answer 41

-Amnesia refers to deficits in memory caused by brain damage, disease, drug abuse, or psychological trauma. -Amnesia provides evidence for proposed divisions between declarative and no-declarative memory. -2 types are: Retrograde and anterograde amnesia

Answer 42

-Inability to remember episodes before the brain injury occurred -Temporally graded. -Cant remember old declarative knowledge

Answer 43

-inability to recall any declarative knowledge (explicit, conscious knowledge) after the brain injury occurs. -Cant learn and retain any new declarative knowledge.

Answer 44

-Severe anterograde amnesia HM experienced (Cant process new declarative memory) indicates hippocampus is essential in the consolidation of declarative memory. -When HM got his hippocampus removed to treat epilepsy, however after the surgery he suffered from temporally graded retrograde amnesia, as well as severe anterograde amnesia. -hippocampus is needed for long term memory establishment.

Answer 45

-Those who suffer from antereograde amnesia are still able to learn new procedural skills (non-declartive learning) for example the mirror-tracing task.This demonstrates that procedural learning can occur independently from brain systems required for declarative learning (hippocampus damage) -Studies show that individuals with antereograde amnesia show preserved non-declarative memory.such as classical and operant conditioning,habituation and priming effects indicating a distinction between declartive and non-declarative forms of memory.

Learning and Cognition Flashcards

(69 cards)