Learning and Memory

Question 1

Multi-store Model of Memory

Answer 1

• Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; memory consists of 3 levels —>
• sensory (iconic/visual -1/2 s; echoic/auditory -2s),
• short-term (when sensory info paid attention to - 20s…unless rehearsed…consists of memory span aka storage capacity/primary memory - 7 +/- 2 but expanded w/chunking…and working memory - process/manipulate info e.g., solve simple math probs),
• long term: encoded; capacity/duration unlimited; divided into recent/secondary memory (minutes to years…most affected w/increasing age) and remote/tertiary memory (years to decades).

Question 2

Serial position effect

Answer 2

• explained by 3-store model
• word list immediate recall - will demo a primacy and recency effect due to long-term (as evident by primacy) and short-term (as evident by recency) memory…however, after delay, see only primacy effect (short-term no longer online)

Question 3

Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory

Answer 3

• working memory (WM) aspect of short-term memory consists of:
• ->Central Executive: controls 3 subsystems by directing attention and coordinating other cognitive processes (e.g., mentally solve math problems).
• ->3 subsystems:
  (1) Phonological Loop-temporary storage of verbal info.
  (2) Visuo-spatial sketchpad-temporary storage of visual/spatial info.
  (3) episodic buffer-integrates verbal, visual, spatial info and links WM to long-term.

Question 4

Long-Term Memory

Answer 4

• can be recent or remote
• can also be:
• -> procedural/nondeclarative - learned skills/actions (e.g., bike riding, playing instrument).
• -> declarative - can be semantic (facts, concepts) and episodic (personal experienced events)
• Can also be retrospective (past) or prospective (future)
• Can be implicit (AKA procedural…recalled w/o conscious effort or through conditioned responses) or explicit (aka declarative).

Question 5

Explanations for Forgetting

Answer 5

-Trace decay theory: memories create physical changes in brain that deteriorate over time w/o rehearsal/recall. Not well supported in research.

• Interference theory: Forgetting due to memory disruption
• -> proactive: prior learned info (e.g., prior list of words interferes with learning new list of words)
• ->retroactive: newly acquired info interferes w/recall of prior info (e.g., unable to recall old list of words bc memorized new list).
• most likely when info is similar (e.g., alternative ways to solve same math prob).

Question 6

Techniques for Improving Memory

Answer 6

• Elaborative Rehearsal: Relate info to prior knowledge or generating personally meaningful examples (semantic encoding - helps retrieval from long-term).
• Mnemonics (memory aids):
• -> verbal: acronyms (e.g., OCEAN) and acrostics (e.g., PEMDAS).
• -> visual: keyword method (paired associate learning -duck w/pot) and method of loci (link image to word).
• Encoding Specificity: hypothesis says retrieval best when conditions @learning are same as conditions @recall (i.e., learning conditions serve as retrieval cues).
• ->context-dependent learning (environment the same)
• ->state-dependent learning (mental/physical state the same)
• Practice Testing: flashcards, tests. Results in “testing effect” - which generates effective mediators (cues) that facilitate future retrieval (mediator effectiveness hypothesis).

Question 7

Cognitive Learning Theories

Answer 7

• focus on mental processes responsible for acquisition of info and skills
• Include Tolman’s Latent Learning, Kohler’s Insight Learning, and Bandura’s Social Cog. Theory

Question 8

Tolman’s Latent Learning (1930)

Answer 8

• rats in mazes.

- Formation of cognitive maps attributed to latent learning (learning not observable w/o reinforcement)

Question 9

Kohler’s Insight Learning (1925)

Answer 9

• Influenced by Gestalt Psych/chimp research (chimp gets banana).
• “a-ha” experience or insight learning…

Question 10

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1986)

Answer 10

• Based on observational learning
• Bobo the clown doll…see adult model act aggressively or not.
• More aggressive if saw aggression. Method didn’t matter (live, film, cartoon)
• more aggressive if gender match and boys overall more aggressive than girls but not if provided reward.
• observational learning depends on 4 meditational processes:
• -> attention
• ->retention
• ->production
• ->motivation (can be increased w/reinforcement..self, external, or vicarious aka through model).

*Modeling most effective w/gradual and guided participation/participant modeling. (good for phobias)

Question 11

Classical Conditioning

Answer 11

• Pavlov’s dog US (meatpowerder) -> UR(salivation)…THEN CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)
• CR always weaker than UR but…
• CR impacted by no. US/CS pairings
• procedure used..delay conditioning (CS precedes/overlaps US; 1/2 sec optimal; best), trace conditioning (CS ended before US), simultaneous conditioning (both end same time), backward conditioning (US before CS…but sucks)

Question 12

Classical Extinction

Answer 12

After CS repeatedly presented w/o US….CS no longer produces CR

Question 13

Spontaneous Recovery (in classical conditioning)

Answer 13

CR returns after extinguished…per Pav means suppressed v. eliminated

Question 14

Stimulus Generalization

Answer 14

• Stimuli similar to original CS elicit CR w/o pairing w/US.
• (Watson) Little Albert (9mo)…white rat/noise startle response.
• generalized to other fuzzy whites

Question 15

Stimulus Discrimination

Answer 15

• Discriminate CS from similar stimuli.

- (pavlov - different tones for dog salivation)

Question 16

Experimental neurosis (Classical Conditioning)

Answer 16

• consequence of stimulus discrimination training/unexpected consequences
• conflict between excitatory and inhibitory processes….
• Pavlov dogs getting aggro when being taught to discriminate

Question 17

Latent Inhibition

Answer 17

-when stimulus pre-exposure reduced likelihood that it will later become CS (when paired with US)

Question 18

Higher-order Conditioning

AKA 2nd or 3rd-order

Answer 18

• chaining different neutral stimuli to elicit CR (e.g., CS serves as US for other stimuli)
• Pavlov bell paired with blinking light

Question 19

Compound Conditioning

Answer 19

2+ stimuli presented together and blocking/overshadowing occur.

Blocking: CC of 1st neutral stimulus blocks CC of 2nd neutral stimulus; 2nd neutral stimulus never becomes CS (happens bc 2nd neutral stimulus does not provide new info re: occurrence of US).
Overshadowing: 2 neutral stimuli repeatedly presented together before US. Will elicit CR together and stronger stimulus of the 2 will elicit CR alone. Failure of less salient stimulus bc overshadowed.

Question 20

Exposure w/Response Prevention (Extinction)

Answer 20

Avoidance has reinforced anxiety response. Need opportunities to extinguish. Expose to feared stimulus (CS) while preventing usual avoidance response.

• can be in vivo, virtual reality, imagination.
• use flooding or graded exposure. Flooding best for agoraphobia otherwise graded is best.
• Sessions must end w/decrease in anxiety.

Question 21

Cue Exposure Therapy (CET): Extinction

Answer 21

Type of ERP for substance use disorder. Expose to cues (CS) w/ substance but prevent use.

• works via extinction/habituation.
• cues= internal/external triggers e.g., cravings, interpersonal conflicts, sight of substance.

*effective alone but better w/coping strategies.

Question 22

Implosive Therapy (Extinction)

Answer 22

Always conducted in imagination and w/psychodynamic elements.

Pt exaggerates image of feared object/event to elicit high anxiety and embellished by therapist (imagine conflicts underlying anxiety).

Question 23

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR): Extinction

Answer 23

OG for PTSD but now for lots of things.

Combo exposure to trauma-related imagery, neg cognitions related to feared event, rehearsal of adaptive cognitions, rapid lateral eye movements.

Says eye movements facilitate mental processing of trauma memories BUT evidence that eye movements don’t add to effectiveness. Benefits due to repeated exposure to feared events (but argued).

Question 24

Systemic Desensitization: Counterconditioning AKA reciprocal inhibition

Answer 24

For phobic anxiety. THREE STEPS:

(1) relaxation strategies
(2) anxiety hierarchy
(3) imagine stimuli while doing relaxation. Graded. Move on when relaxation maintained.

Works by replacing undesirable anxiety response w/incompatible relaxation response.

Research w/dismantling strategy has found effectiveness is due to extinction and NOT reciprocal inhibition.

Question 25

Aversion Therapy AKA Aversive Counterconditioning

Answer 25

OG for addictions and other self-reinforcing bx's. E.g., shock w/fetish. Then, fetish (CS) produces pain response (CR) instead of sexual arousal. IF CONDUCTED IN IMAGINATION, KNOWN AS COVERT SENSITIZATION. Sessions end w/ imagined "relief scene" i.e., face stimulus associated w/prob bx but refrain from engaging and experience sense of relief/positive sensation.

Question 26

E.L. Thorndike - Law of Effect

Answer 26

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are likely to occur again (e.g., cats w/random bx trying to escape crate)

Question 27

B.F. Skinner - Operant Conditioning

Answer 27

- Positive reinforcement (e.g., get paid for work; reward). - Negative reinforcement (e.g., clean room and parents stop nagging; relief). ``` Positive Punishment (e.g., get yelled at for hitting sibling; pain). Negative Punishment (e.g., privilege loss; loss). ```

Question 28

Operant Extinction

Answer 28

Extinction Burst Behavioral Contrast: when one of two bx's being reinforced increases bc the other bx is no longer reinforced.

Question 29

Reinforcement Schedules

Answer 29

Continuous Schedule: acquisition of bx fastest but can result in satiation and rapid extinction. Best to then switch to partial/intermittent schedule. Partial/Intermittent Schedules: - fixed interval (FI): consistent reinforcement on fixed schedule. low rate of responding, responses made before end of each interval. - fixed ratio (FR): reinforcement consistently given after specific NUMBER of responses (.e.,g after 10 presses). stead and relatively high rate of responding. - Variable interval (VI): reinforcement given after intervals of varying length. steady but low rate of responding. - Variable ratio (VR): reinforcement given after variable # of responses. Produces HIGHEST rate of responding and greatest resistance to extinction.

Question 30

Thinning

Answer 30

Reducing amount of reinforcement for behavior (e.g., from continuous to intermittent schedule). Helps increase resistance to extinction.

Question 31

Matching Law

Answer 31

Rate of performing a behavior is proportional to the frequency AND magnitude of reinforcement (e.g., rat will press one lever more if reinforcement schedule is shorter; press one lever more if reward is better)

Question 32

Types of Positive Reinforcers

Answer 32

Primary: Satisfy need to basic survival and are inherently reinforcing (e.g., food, water). Secondary: Neutral stimuli that become reinforcing bc of association w/primary reinforcers (e.g., praise, tokens). When associated w/ many backup/primary reinforcers, then known as generalized reinforcers/ generalized secondary reinforcers/ generalized conditioned reinforcers (e.g., money).

Question 33

Superstitious Behavior

Answer 33

When bx increases bc it was accidentally/inadvertently reinforced

Question 34

Stimulus Control

Answer 34

Example of Two-Factor Learning -> which combines operant and classical conditioning. - performance of bx due to positive reinforcement (operant) - performance of bx due to positive discriminative stimulus (e.g., blinking light, SD) but not in the presence of a negative discriminative (S-deta, non-binding light) stimulus (classical/discrimination training)

Question 35

Prompts

Answer 35

Help initiate bx. Act as positive discriminative stimuli. Removal = FADING

Question 36

Generalization

Answer 36

Stimulus Generalization -> stimuli similar to positive discriminative stimulus elicits same response. Response Generalization -> Reinforcement increases the likelihood that similar behaviors will occur (e.g., child starts sharing other toys).

Question 37

Escape and Avoidance Conditioning

Answer 37

Escape -> due to negative reinforcement/ escape of unpleasant stimulus. Avoidance -> result of 2-factor learning. Stimulus signals unpleasant stimulus about to happen. E.g., blinking light signals that shock is coming.

Question 38

Habituation

Answer 38

Gradual decline in frequency/magnitude of response. Why punishment does not have good long-term effects (i.e., person becomes used to it and it comes less effective).

Question 39

FBA

Answer 39

(1) Collect info using direct (observations) and indirect methods (2) Collect info re: antecedents/consequences maintaining bx and develop hypothesis re: function. (3) Test hypothesis by systematically altering. (4) Implement function-based interventions (5) Evaluate effectiveness and make modifications

Question 40

Shaping

Answer 40

Reinforcing successive approximations to desired bx (e.g., Lovaas and teaching imitative speech)

Question 41

Chaining

Answer 41

Forward Chaining: teaching each response separately beginning w/first until reaching desired bx. (e.g., teeth brushing). Backward Chaining: begin w/last response and teach backward. **difference w/shaping -> In shaping, previously learned responses become irrelevant.

Question 42

Premack Principle

Answer 42

a high frequency or preferred behavior is used as reinforcement for a low frequency or less preferred behavior to increase the low frequency behavior. A parent is using the Premack principle when her child loves to play video games but hates doing homework and she tells the child he can play video games only after he’s finished his homework.

Question 43

Overcorrection

Answer 43

Type of positive punishment. Involves: Restitution -> Have individual correct consequence and restore environment to better state (e.g., have child pick up chairs he knocked over). Positive Practice -> practice alternative appropriate bx that are similar to desired bx. (e.g., straighten up entire classroom). *use verbal instructions and/or physical/manual guidance

Question 44

Response Cost

Answer 44

Type of negative punishment. AKA privilege loss or losing tokens.

Question 45

Time Out

Answer 45

Remove all sources of reinforcement following undesirable bx for brief period. - child should be informed what gets time out and how long it will last. - should be applied immediately and consistently. - Should be brief (1-10min) but not end until no longer engaging in the bx. - Combo w/positive reinforcement for desired bx.

Question 46

Extinction

Answer 46

Operant extinction -> withholding reinforcement for bx that has been reinforced (e.g., paying attention to whining child). Removal should be consistent and combo w/ reinforcement for appropriate bx's.

Question 47

Differential Reinforcement

Answer 47

Combo extinction and positive reinforcement to weaken undesirable bx and increase alternative bx. (1) Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI): reinforce bx that's incompatible w/prob bx (e.g., staying seated). (2) Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA): reinforce alternative bx that's not necessarily incompatible w/prob bx. (e.g., raising hand instead of calling out). (3) Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO): reinforce engaging in bx other than undesirable (e.g., appropriate activities other than hand flapping). (4) Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Behavior (DRL): reinforce engaging in target bx at or less than specified low rate (e.g., 3 or fewer questions in given period to curb frequent interruptions)