Learning and Motivation Flashcards
What is classical conditioning?
A type of learned response that occurs when a neutral object comes to elicit a reflexive response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response.
Describe Pavlov’s experiments on the physiology of dogs, and how he came to discover classical conditioning through this research.
He noticed the dogs began salivating when they saw the assistants, even before the food. Same response to white lab coat. White lab coat had become associated with food and could elicit salivation; an irrelevant stimulus;
Other irrelevant stimuli tested: bell ringing, metronome, lights, other sounds;
Theory of conditioned reflexes; certain behaviours could be modified so that they are elicited by certain stimuli.
Aim: participant to respond to a neutral/irrelevant stimulus in the same way they would respond to a natural stimulus; want a neutral stimulus to produce an innate response;
Describe a typical Pavlovian experiment.
A neutral stimulus (ringing bell) presented together with stimulus that reliably produces reflex (i.e. food). Conditioning trial is repeated many times. Then on critical trial, neutral stimulus presented alone and conditioned response is measured.
What is an unconditioned response (UR)?
Innate response, elicited by naturally occurring stimuli.
E.g. salivation - elicited by US, blinking, jumping/fear, stress, arousal, nausea.
What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?
Naturally occurring stimuli that elicits a response without any prior learning.
E.g. food, puff of air, loud noise, studying, sexual image, chemotherapy.
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
An acquired response that is learned.
E.g. salivation – elicited by CS.
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
Neutral stimuli. One that only elicits a response after learning takes place.
E.g. lab coat (or bell)
What is second order conditioning?
Where a new second order conditioned stimulus is created, by pairing a new stimulus with a previously created conditioned stimulus. Once a CS has acquired a conditioned response, it can also act as if 1it is a US itself.
Example: the bell (CS1) is used to form CS2 – light –> elicits UR. Or celebrity endorsement – that transfer of positive attitudes towards celebrity to product.
Define acquisition.
The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli as a result of repeated presentations of the CS and the US together.
(Note: the CS before the US – bc principle of temporal contiguity – the strongest conditioning occurs when the CS comes ~500 milliseconds before the US.)
Define extinction.
Extinction is the removal of a conditioned response by consistently and repeatedly presenting the CR alone. The CR weakens because of the absence of an association between CS and US.
i.e. just ringing the bell alone –> unlearning.
Define spontaneous recovery. What does this suggest about extinction?
A process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges following presentation of the CS.
This suggests that extinction inhibits but does not break the associative bond. We know that it is not simply ‘unlearning’ – something more complex. People can relapse.
How does classical conditioning relate to human psychology more generally?
Classical conditioning is an experimental model for studying learning processes.
It is a type of ‘associative learning’.
What is an example that shows that classical conditioning is more complex than just transferring a reflex from one stimulus to another?
The CR is not always the same as the UR. (CR = UR = salivation for Pavlov.)
Conditioning of fear and anxiety (emotional states) – done in rats by warning signal + electric shock through floor. The CR and UR are very different.
US – painful/unpleasant event: electric shock
UR – escape behaviour; defensive/aggression
CS – warning signal
CR – fear – freezes
Examples of appetitive conditioning?
• Food preferences
• Place preferences
Conditioning with good outcomes.
Examples of aversive conditioning?
- Conditioned fear
- Anticipatory nausea
- Conditioned taste aversions
- Place avoidance
What is anticipatory nausea?
Chemotherapy patients – where nausea transfers to stimuli associated with the chemo such as talking to the doctor on the phone; walking into the hospital; the hospital room; the nurse;
- US – chemotherapy nausea
- CS – nurse / hospital room /
- CR – nausea
- UR – nausea
How does conditioning work in advertising?
Develop preference (UR/CR) for brand/product by pairing the product (CS) with desirable qualities (US).
We develop these preferences, fail to realise that these emotional responses come from the conditioning.
What is the relationship between exposure therapy and extinction?
Assumption that fear is a learned/conditioned response. Therefore, it can be extinguished through exposing people to the fear stimulus without any negative consequences. Over time, diminished fear (hopefully).
Two ways:
• Systematic desensitivisation – showing images
• Flooring – very real, intense exposure
What is instrumental conditioning?
Instrumental conditioning — aka operant conditioning — learning process where consequences of action determine likelihood that that behaviour will be repeated in the future.
What is the most important difference between classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning?
Only in instrumental conditioning can the subject’s actions control how events in the experiment occur.
What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
Basic assumption: what a human does is influenced by the immediate consequences of such behaviour in the past.
Thorndike’s (1911) Law of Effect:
Given a particular situation, if an action is met with <b>satisfaction</b>, the organism will be more likely to make the same action next time it finds itself in that situation.
What is radical behaviourism? Who were the best known advocates?
Started with J.B. Watson, continued by B.F. Skinner.
- Rejected anything unobservable (Introspection is shit!)
- i.e. not interested in things you cannot see (cognition, thoughts, any internal processes that can be inferred from behaviours etc)
- Believed that all human psychology could be reduced to relationships between stimuli and responses.
What is radical behaviourism? Who were the best known advocates?
Started with J.B. Watson, continued by B.F. Skinner.
- Rejected anything unobservable (Introspection is shit!)
- i.e. not interested in things you cannot see (cognition, thoughts, any internal processes that can be inferred from behaviours etc)
- Believed that all human psychology could be reduced to relationships between stimuli and responses.
What are reinforcers?
Events (stimulus following response) that result in an increase in likelihood of a particular behaviour. E.g. cat pressing pedal to get food – satisfaction.
