Learning goals

Question 1

Explain Elder’s life course research concepts and be able to apply them to real life examples and criminal behavior.

Answer 1

1. Trajectories is the whole line, made up for transitions. The overall direction of their criminal life, made up of various stages or transitions. Example: for a criminal, their trajectory might involve stages like petty theft as a teenager, escalating to more serious crimes in their 20s, and potentially ending with imprisonment or rehabilitation.
2. Transitions is a change, ‘normal stuff’ that happens. The step-by-step changes within criminal behavior. Example: for a criminal, transitioning might involve moving from minor offenses like shoplifting to more serious ones like burglary.
3. Turning points are much bigger, and serious, leads to change in your behavior. Example: a criminal might have a turning point when they get caught and face serious consequences for their actions. Leads to complete shift in their behavior.
4. Social pathways are trajectories of education and work, family and residences that are followed by individuals and groups through society. These pathways are shaped by historical forces and are often structured by social institutions. Example: for a criminal, their social pathway might involve dropping out of school, joining a criminal group for income, and continuously moving between unstable residences due to legal troubles.
5. Age effects are as people get older, their behavior changes. Hirschi gaat hier van uit; you age and you commit different crimes over ages. Example: a person might engage in more impulsive crimes in their youth but shift to more calculated white-collar crimes as they get older, influenced by different motivations and opportunities
6. Period effects is when you look at people getting older, in a given period. Example: changes in technology might influence the types of cybercrimes committed across various age groups within a given period.
7. Cohort effects are impacts of being part of a specific generation. Example: individuals born during times of economic hardship might have different criminal tendencies due to the socioeconomic conditions they grew up in compared to those born during prosperous times.

Question 2

Explain Elder’s life course paradigmatic principles of life course theory and be able to apply them to real life examples and criminal behavior.

Answer 2

1. The principle of life-span development. Human development and aging are lifelong processes. People can transform and evolve throughout their lives. Example: someone involved in gang activity as a teenager might, through intervention programs and personal growth, completely change their lifestyle by their late 20s.
2. The principle of agency. Individuals construct their own life through the choice and actions they take within the opportunities and constraint of history and social circumstance. Even in challenging circumstances, individuals have the power to make choices that shape their future. Example: person raised in high-crime neighborhood. Despite this environment, they may choose education over joining a gang, ultimately leading to a different life trajectory.
3. The principle of time and place. The life course of individuals is embedded and shaped by the historical times and places they experience over their lifetime. Example: a person growing up during a period of economic prosperity might have different opportunities and influences compared to someone growing up during a recession.
4. The principle of timing. The developmental antecedents and consequences of life transitions, events, and behavioral patterns vary according to their timing in a person’s life. Example: individuals joining the military. Someone who enlists right after high school might gain valuable skills and maturity early, potentially avoiding criminal involvement. On later age, it can be a turning point.
5. The principle of linked lives. Lives are lived interdependently and socio-historical influences are expressed through this network of shared relationships. Underscores how relationships and interactions affect individual choices and behavior. Example: a person can leave a criminal lifestyle due to the positive influence of a supportive partner or mentor.

Question 3

Understand the age-crime curve and be able to explain how and why it may vary across different types of crimes.

Answer 3

Hirschi & Gottfredson stated that only age matter. They believed crime declines with age (it’s a maturational reform, ageing-out). It may vary across different types of crimes (Steffensmeier et al.). Different types of crimes have different age-crime curves due to variations in motivations, opportunities and risks associated with each offense. Moreover, changes in law enforcement practices and data collection methods have also influenced the observed patterns of youth crime across different periods.

Question 4

Be able to reconstruct and critically assess the debate about age and crime (Hirschi & Gottfredson vs Steffensmeier et al).

Answer 4

Steffensmeier et al. believes that crime declines with age, but this decline is because of changes in social roles and context. Hirschi & Gottfredson say the social roles and context doesn’t matter, and say crime declines with age. They believe that the connection between age and crime remains the same across different situations. They say that age plays a consistent role in criminal behavior, and theories about crime don’t always need to focus on age specifically. They challenge ideas that emphasize age as the main reason people commit crimes, suggesting that the causes might be the same across all ages. Steffensmeier et al. argue that there isn’t a one-size-fits-all pattern when it comes to age and crime. They say that while crime tends to decrease as people get older, its not the same for every type of crime. Some crimes might peak at different ages or decline at different rates. They suggest that different types of crimes are influenced by age in various ways.

Question 5

Explain the components of a criminal career and be able to identify them based on a life history calendar.

Answer 5

1. Participation. People who engage in crime during their life course vs. those who do not. Age of onset: the age when the very first criminal offence has begun.
2. Frequency. Rate of activity, number of offences (Lambda is the rate of activity).
3. Seriousness. Minor vs. serious, escalation/de-escalation, specialization (single type of crime, not very common).
4. Duration. Length in time of criminal activity or career. Desistance will occur, what means the end of a criminal career.

Question 6

Identify and describe typical criminal offending characteristics of the two types of offenders according to Moffitt’s dual taxonomy theory. AANVULLEN ADHV ARTIKEL MOFFITT

Answer 6

Life course-persistent: continuity in antisocial behavior in all domains (school, home, peers etc.), more serious offences, early onset (before adolescence, even before birth).

Adolescent-limited: start of adolescence (above 15), no prior behavior problems, minor offences, criminal career is inconsistent, sporadic and spontaneous, there is a desistence by mid 20s.

Question 7

Be able to describe and critically assess the mechanisms underlying onset, persistence and continuity in criminal behavior for each offender type according to Moffitt’s dual taxonomy theory.

Answer 7

Adolescent limited: start of adolescence, above 15. Mechanisms are maturity gap, mimic LCP’s and gaining status through crime. They will change because the maturity gap disappears as they get older. So they have more alternative opportunities. Crime will no longer feel as a reward but more as a punishment.

Life course-persistent: start early in childhood. Mechanisms are neuropsychological dysfunctions (e.g. temper, impulsivity) and environment (and this influences each other, e.g. ill equipped parents). They will not change, they don’t stop committing crimes. But they will commit more heavy crimes because of the contemporary continuity and the cumulative continuity.

Question 8

Be able to explain the mechanisms of informal social control, including the theoretical mechanisms underlying social bonds, and how these change over the life course.

Answer 8

The start of onset is not specified, you can start at any age. Mechanisms underlying the onset are social bonds (influences each other), self-selection (e.g. low self-control), and certain characteristics can lead to more crime. They change around turning points. It is not a one day change, it happens over time and it will change the behavior (e.g. marriage). A turning point can be negative as well. Social bonds put constraints on criminal behavior due to attachment, commitment, involvement and beliefs. Self-selection means that people select experiences/groups based on internal traits. A variation in traits explains variation in behavior (H&G).

Question 9

Identify similarities between the assumptions and mechanisms underlying S&L’s theory and Moffitt’s theory.

Answer 9

1. Life course perspective. Both theories adopt a life course perspective, acknowledging that behavior develops and changes over time, influenced by various life events and transitions.
2. Focus on continuity and change. Both theories attempt to explain the continuity of antisocial behavior from childhood to adulthood, as well as the potential for change or desistance from such behavior.
3. Influence of social context. Both theories emphasize the impact of social contexts and relationships on individual behavior. They recognize the significance of social bonds and connections in either reinforcing or deterring criminal behavior.

Question 10

Identify differences between the assumptions and mechanisms underlying S&L’s theory and Moffitt’s theory.

Answer 10

1. Mechanisms of continuity. Moffitt’s theory introduces a distinction between LCP and AL offenders. LCP offenders show continuity in antisocial behavior from childhood into adulthood due to underlying neuropsychological deficits and environmental factors. In contrast, AL offenders exhibit temporary antisocial behavior limited to adolescence, often influenced by peer associations and situational factors. S&L’s theory doesn’t explicitly distinguish between these two types of offenders.
2. Role of turning points. L&S’s theory places a strong emphasis on turning points, significant life events such as marriage or employment, which can redirect life trajectories away from criminal behavior. Moffitt’s theory, while acknowledging the potential for change, focuses less explicitly on such turning points and more on the developmental paths (LCP and AL) individuals take.
3. Conceptualization of social control. S&L’s theory highlights the role of social capital and informal social control through strong social ties and networks in inhibiting criminal behavior. Moffitt’s theory doesn’t directly emphasize social control mechanisms but focuses more on the interplay between individual vulnerabilities and environmental factors.
4. Individual differences. Moffitt’s theory underscores individual differences in neuropsychological vulnerabilities and the interaction between biology and environment, whereas S&L’s theory leans more towards the impact of social ties and cumulative experiences in shaping behavior.

Question 11

Understand and explain the differences between a life course criminological and environmental criminological approach to explaining criminal behavior.

Answer 11

Within the study of life course (traditional) criminality studies we look at how to change motivations to commit crimes and the object of the study is offenders lives. When someone commits a crime, it will say ‘in 2023 X committed a crime’. Life course looks at unemployment and/or delinquent friends as explanatory factors. Within environmental criminology studies we look at how to reduce opportunities to commit crime, and the object of the study is places/situations. Looks at unstructured activities and peer pressure. When looking at this, we can ask the question how the moment when the crime was committed (often only 5 minutes or 30 minutes e.g.) is different from times when someone did not offend. You break down the entire year into timeslots and then look at how these timeslots differ in characteristics and what kind of activities people did.

Question 12

Critically assess the limitations of life course criminology

Answer 12

1. Individual-centric focus. LCC primarily emphasizes individual-level factors, such as employment, delinquent friends, long-term associations with offending. This singular focus on individual characteristics might overlook the broader environmental and situational influences that can contribute to criminal behavior.
2. Limited emphasis on situational context. It tends to neglect the immediate situational context in which crimes occur. While it examines long-term associations and patterns in individuals’ lives, it might not adequately address the specific situations or environments that prompt criminal actions.
3. Long-term vs. immediate factors. LCC often looks at long-term trends and associations between life events and criminal behavior. However, it might not sufficiently account for short-term, immediate triggers or situational factors that lead to criminal acts.
4. Complexity of crime causation. Crime is a multifaceted phenomenon influenced by various factors, including individual characteristics, social environments, and situational opportunities. LCC, by focusing primarily on individual life events, might oversimplify the complex interplay of these factors in explaining criminal behavior.
5. Inadequate prevention strategies. While LCC identifies risk factors associated with criminal behavior, its focus on long-term developmental processes might not offer immediate or actionable strategies for crime prevention. It might not address situational interventions or environmental modifications that can effectively deter criminal activities in the short term.
6. Limited scope for understanding spatial and temporal patterns. LCC might not adequately explore the spatial and temporal dimensions of criminal behavior. understanding when and where crimes occur, and the environmental factors contributing to these patterns, is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of criminal activities.
7. Overlooking interaction effects. It might overlook the interaction effects between individual characteristics and situational/environmental factors in influencing criminal behavior. LLC’s emphasis on individual life trajectories might not sufficiently consider how these trajectories intersect with situational opportunities to lead to criminal acts.

Question 13

How can environmental criminology complement life course explanations of crime.

Answer 13

Environmental criminology complements life course explanations by highlighting the significance of environmental aspects and their role in creating opportunities for crime.
1. Focus on situational aspects. Environmental criminology emphasizes the importance of situational factors, such as the availability of suitable targets, the absence of capable guardians, and the convergence of motivated offenders. This perspective goes beyond individual characteristics to consider the immediate context in which criminal acts occur.
2. Opportunity reduction strategies. Environmental criminology proposes strategies to reduce crime opportunities, such as fostering informal surveillance, enhancing formal surveillance, and altering the physical environment to deter criminal activities. These strategies address the situational aspects that might lead to criminal behavior.
3. Temporal and spatial analysis. Environmental criminology delves into the temporal and spatial distribution of crime events. By understanding when and where crime are more likely to occur, it offers insights into how the environment influences criminal behavior. this complements life course criminology by providing a broader context for understanding why certain individuals might engage in criminal activities at specific times or places.

Question 14

Be able to explain and apply the theoretical mechanisms of different theories in environmental criminology.

Answer 14

1. Routine activity theory. Crime happens when motivated offenders converge in time and space with suitable targets in the absence of capable guardians. It doesn’t explain, it just assumes. When these three things converge, you will get into crime. Example is a decline in physical offences during COVID, because people stayed at home.
2. Rational choice theory. Offenders are goal-oriented and weigh their decisions on whether to commit a crime on the basis of advantages and risks of the location and time. Offenders weigh costs and benefits of different behavior alternatives, offenders would make those choices that are assumed to bring them closer to their goals. When, where and how are important concepts.
3. Crime pattern theory. Integrates RAT and RCT. Lays emphasis on offenders routines and opportunities for crime. Offenders commit crimes where they also have their non-criminal routine activities such as close to home, close to previous home locations, close to home locations of family members, close to previous crime locations or close to attractive targets. Its about physical space: you know very little about places you’ve never been, so you target places where you come often.

Question 15

Explain the intergenerational mechanisms of transmission

Answer 15

1. Exposure to criminogenic risk factors. Contains various risk factors for developing criminal behavior, which is not directly transmitted from parents to children but rather through continuity of antisocial and criminogenic features. Can be mediating variables, such as poverty, unsafe neighborhoods, deficient parenting practices. Direct effect, similar to static theory because it influences both parent and child.
2. Negative environmental context. This is about the parents themselves. Actions what they do in their home, influences the life of criminal behavior. e.g. drug use increases instability.
3. Social learning. Parents, through their actions, ‘teach’ their children how to commit crime and may even engage in criminal behavior with their children. Children with criminal parents might imitate delinquent/antisocial behavior and might learn that it is acceptable to engage in such behavior.
4. Genetic (sociobiological) mechanisms. There is no crime gene. Some suggest biochemicals in the brain influence thoughts, learning, perceptions and feeling, especially in relation to environmental inputs. Serotonin and dopamine. High testosterone levels and lower resting heart rates are physiological bases for criminal behavior.
5. Official bias in criminal justice system. This is a contextual factor such as law enforcement and courts, whose might be biased against known criminal families. they pay more attention to these families, and also the children. Biasing variables can be parental convictions, low SES, low income, poor housing, poor employment record. Labeling theory occurs: “because they think I am a bad kid, I am a bad kid so I am going to behave as one”.
6. Assortative mating. The tendency to form unions with those similar to one’s self. Antisocial people tend to cohabitate with, marry, and have children with other antisocial people.

Question 16

Critically evaluate how the intergenerational mechanisms of transmission fit into life course theories of criminal behavior.

Answer 16

1. Exposure to criminogenic risk factors. Life course theories: LCT acknowledge the significance of environmental influences and stress the continuity of risk factors across generations. The concept of continuity in antisocial and criminogenic features aligns with the LCP, emphasizing the impact of early exposure to risk factors on the development of criminal behavior over time. Example: a child growing up in a neighborhood with high poverty rates, limited access to quality education, prevalent gang activity might face increase exposure to criminal behavior.
2. Negative environmental context. Life course theories: LCT emphasize the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior. The negative environmental context within the home, such as drug use and instability, fits into the life course framework by highlighting the significance of early-life experiences in influencing future criminal behavior. Example: a home environment characterized by parental drug addition and frequent instability, such as inconsistent caregiving of frequent changes in residence, can disrupt a child’s sense of stability and security, potentially contributing to behavior problems and later involvement in criminal activities.
3. Social learning. Life course theories: LCT emphasize the importance of socialization processes and early interactions in shaping behavior. Children modeling their behavior based on parental actions aligns with this perspective, emphasizing the continuity of behavior across generations. Example: a teenager witnessing their parent’s involvement in shoplifting and regularly accompanying them on these excursions might internalize the behavior as acceptable or even normal, leading to a higher chance to engage in similar criminal acts.
4. Genetic (sociobiological) mechanisms. Life course theories: while LCT mostly focus on environmental influences, they also recognize the interplay between genetics and environment. The idea of biochemical and physiological influences on behavior complements the life course framework by acknowledging the complex interaction between biological predispositions and environmental inputs throughout an individual’s life. Example: individuals with a genetic predisposition characterized by specific neurotransmitter imbalances, such as low serotonin levels or altered dopamine functioning, might exhibit impulsivity or seek high-risk behavior, potentially increasing the likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior.
5. Official bias in criminal justice system. Life course theories: LCT emphasize the impact of labeling and stigmatization on individual’s self-concept and behavior. The contextual factor of bias in the criminal justice system aligns with this perspective, as it can contribute to the reinforcement of criminal identities among individuals from known criminal families, reinforcing a self-fulfilling prophecy of criminal behavior. Example: children from families with a history of criminal convictions might experience increased scrutiny and prejudice from law enforcement, leading to a heightened sense of stigmatization. This labeling might result in self-fulfilling prophecy where the child internalized the label of being a “bad kid” and acts accordingly.
6. Assortative mating. Life course theories: the concept of assortative mating fits into LCT by highlighting the intergenerational transmission of antisocial traits. LCP acknowledge the role of family and social networks in shaping behavior, and assortative mating can contribute to the continuity of antisocial tendencies across generations. Example: two individuals with a history of antisocial behavior and criminal activity forming a relationship might reinforce each other’s deviant behavior, creating a household environment where criminal conduct is more normalized and accepted, potentially influencing children within that environment to follow similar patterns.

Question 17

Be able to describe how family functioning and parenting influence criminal behavior in childhood.

Answer 17

Family structure can influence criminality in different ways: single parent households, large families, family cohesion and SES can influence criminality. Also characteristics of the parent(s), e.g. maternal depression, conflict, drug use/criminal behavior of the parents. Parenting practices (what are parents doing when they interact with their child) and styles (such as support and control, direct vs. indirect control) also influence criminal behavior. It’s a reciprocal, dynamic effect: parents influence child, but also vice versa. Some parenting practice factors that influence criminal behavior:
1. Monitoring and discipline. When the kid enters school, they spend less time with family. That’s when the need for autonomy occurs in the child. In school the kid will need and will meet monitor activities, whereabouts and peers to socialize (e.g. ask questions, encourage disclosure of information) and control (e.g. set rules, demand information).
2. Discipline and punishment. This is the parental enforcement of rules and boundaries. There is a severity of punishment (e.g. physical and non-physical, harsh, mild, absent) and parents will need to be consistent in their punishment. Coroporal punishment is associated with wide range of negative outcomes.
3. Attachment and involvement. Attachment is the socio-emotional bond with parents, it’s a psychological (indirect) control. It’s the relationship with the caregiver, in which kids will receive support and stability (with secure attachment). In the attachment a kid can develop emotional regulation and social behaviors. Involvement is about spending time with children, interests in life/activities, what can improve disclosure.

Question 18

Critically evaluate the empirical evidence for family and parental risk factors for criminal behavior.

Answer 18

The evidence presented outlines a multitude of familial and parental factors that significantly impact the development of criminal behavior in children and adolescents. Strengths of evidence:
1. Consistent associations. The empirical evidence consistently highlights correlations between certain family dynamics (like early motherhood, single-parent households, parental criminal behavior) and increased risk of delinquent behavior in children.
2. Longitudinal studies. Long-term studies tracking families from childhood to adulthood provide a comprehensive understanding of how family factors impact behavior over time.
3. Theoretical models support findings. The incorporation of established theories like Patterson’s coercion theory and Moffitt’s developmental taxonomy model helps substantiate the observed connections between family dynamics and criminal behavior.

Question 19

Apply evidence to identify policy solutions to prevent criminal behavior in childhood.

Answer 19

Family dynamics and parentings practices have an influence on childhood criminal behavior.

Early intervention programs:
1. Parenting education and support. Implement comprehensive programs that offer parenting classes, workshops, and resources targeting parents, especially those at higher risk (e.g. young mothers, single-parent households). These programs should focus on positive parenting techniques, effective discipline, and fostering healthy parent-child relationships.
2. Home visitation programs. Introduce initiatives where trained professionals visit homes to provide guidance, support, and resources for parents, particularly in vulnerable communities. These programs can enhance parental skills and create a nurturing environment for children.

School based initiatives:
1. Social-emotional learning programs. Integrate social-emotional learning into school curricla to promote emotional regulation, empathy, and positive social interactions among children. This can limit aggressive behaviors and enhance conflict resolution skills.
2. Early identification and support services. Develop systems within schools to identify children exhibiting behavioral issues early on and provide appropriate support services, including counseling, mentoring, and interventions targeting specific risk factors identified in the family environment.

Community support and engagement:
1. Community-based family support programs. Establish community centers that offer support to families, providing access to resources like counseling, childcare, job training, and educational programs. This can strengthen family functioning and reduce stressors that contribute to delinquent behavior.
2. Mentorship programs. Facilitate mentorship programs where at-risk children are paired with positive adult role models. These mentors can offer guidance, support, and opportunities for constructive activities outside the family environment.

Policy frameworks:
1. Early childhood development policies. Advocate for policies that promote early childhood development, including access to quality childcare, healthcare, and parental leave. These policies can positively impact a child’s early years, fostering healthy and cognitive and emotional development.
2. Support for low-income families. implement policies aimed at reducing socioeconomic disparities by providing financial support, affordable housing, access to education, and healthcare for low-income families. Addressing these systematic issues can limit the risk factors associated with poverty.

Evaluation and adaptation:
1. Evidence-based interventions. Continuously evaluate the effectiveness of prevention programs using empirical evidence. Modify and adapt interventions based on research findings to ensure they address the specific needs of diverse communities and evolving family structures.
2. Longitudinal studies and research funding. Invest in long-term research studies tracking the impact of policy interventions on family dynamics and childhood behavior. this ongoing research can inform policymakers about the most effective strategies for preventing criminal behavior in childhood.

Question 20

Critically evaluate the empirical evidence against family and parental risk factors for criminal behavior.

Answer 20

Its crucial to critically evaluate this evidence to understand the complexities and potential limitations in establishing causal relationships between these factors and criminal behavior. Weaknesses and considerations:
1. Causality vs. correlation. While there are strong correlations, establishing causality between familial factors and criminal behavior can be challenging due to the presence of confounding variables or bidirectional influences.
2. Diversity in parenting styles. Different cultures and societies may perceive and practice parenting differently. The impact of certain parenting practices might vary across different communities.
3. Individual differences. Not all children raised in environments with identified risk factors develop delinquent behaviors. There might be individual differences or protective factors that mitigate (=beperken) the influence of familial risk factors.
4. Methodological challenges. Measurements of parenting practices might be subjective, leading to variability in results across studies. Also, the reliance on self-reporting or observational data might introduce biases.

Question 21

Compare the mechanisms by which peers can influence criminal behavior.

Answer 21

Contrasts/verschillen:
1. Immediate peer influence vs. transitional influence. Engel’s article emphasizes immediate influence through social information, where participants’ decisions are affected by knowledge of peers’ behavior without physical presence. Freelin’s article focuses on how transitional changes (like school transitions) impact social bonds, peer groups, and unstructured socializing over time, leading to changes in delinquent behavior.
2. Focus on social bonds vs. focus on social information. Engel’s article investigates how immediate exposure to information about peer behavior influences an individual’s decision-making, regardless of established social bonds. Freelin’s article explores changes in social bonds and attachments to prosocial or delinquent peers during transitions as a driver of delinquent behaviors.
3. Long-term impact vs. immediate impact. Engel’s article examines immediate responses to social information about peers’ behaviors, providing insights into the direct influence of peer behavior on individual decisions. Freelin’s article considers the longer-term effects of shifts in social bonds and peer groups during transitions into delinquency.

Question 22

Explain the role of changing contexts (schools) on opportunities for criminal behavior.

Answer 22

Changing contexts (school transitions):
1. Social bond disruption. School transitions can disrupt existing social bonds and networks. Moving to a new school might lead to a loss of previous friendships or connections, creating a need to establish new relationships. This disruption can influence an individuals’ susceptibility to new peer influences, both prosocial and delinquent.
2. Peer group dynamics. Transitions between schools introduce individuals to new peer groups. Joining a new school means encountering different social structures, which might include peers involved in various behaviors, including delinquent activities. These new peer groups can influence an individual’s attitudes, behaviors, and choices.
3. Social control. Schools differ in their social control mechanisms. Transitioning between schools might imply changes in the levels of supervision, discipline, and social norms. Some schools may have more effective social control measures, while others may lack strict monitoring, offering more opportunities for deviant behavior.
4. Unstructured socializing. Transitions can affect the nature and frequency of socializing opportunities. Moving to a new school might mean different activities, such as after-school clubs or sports, affecting the amount of time spent in structured or unstructured socializing, which in turn influences exposure to potential delinquent behavior.

Question 23

Explain the role of routine activities on opportunities for criminal behavior.

Answer 23

Routine activities:
1. Opportunity theory. Routine activities theory posits that crime occurs when a motivated offender encounters a suitable target in the absence of capable guardianship. Routine activities shape the opportunities for criminal behavior. For instance, unstructured socializing (with peers) where no authority figure is present might create opportunities for delinquent acts.
2. Temporal and spatial aspects. The types of routine activities individuals engage in, especially during leisure time, influence the likelihood of exposure to criminal opportunities. Spending unsupervised time in certain places or engaging in activities where social control is low increases the likelihood of engaging in delinquent behavior.
3. Types of activities. Engaging in certain types of routine activities, such as substance use or loitering in areas with high delinquency rates, can create opportunities for criminal behavior. Conversely, involvement in structured activities or supervised leisure might decrease exposure to such opportunities.

Question 24

Understand and be able to explain how these two factors (peers and school/context) interact to explain crime.

Answer 24

Peer influence within the school context:
1. Social learning and norms. Peers within the school context contribute to the transmission of norms and behaviors. Adolescents spend a significant portion of their time at school, where they interact closely with peers. These interactions involve learning from peers’ behaviors, attitudes, and values, which can either encourage or discourage delinquent behavior.
2. Peer group dynamics. Schools are hubs where peer groups form, influencing each other’s behaviors. The composition and dynamics of these groups, whether pro-social or delinquent-oriented, impact individual behavior. Joining certain peer groups can expose individuals to behaviors that align with the group’s norms, affecting their likelihood of engaging in delinquent acts.
3. Social control mechanisms. Schools enforce social control through rules, regulation and authority figures. Peer interactions within this controlled environment may shape compliance or resistance to these controls. Peers might influence whether an individual conforms to or rebels against school norms and rules, affecting their likelihood of engaging in deviant behaviors.

School/contextual factors shaping peer influence:
1. Social climate and school culture. The overall climate of the school, including its values, discipline policies, and support systems, influences the peer dynamics and the prevalence of deviant behaviors. Schools with positive and supportive climates might foster fewer delinquent behaviors among peers.
2. Peer selection and school transitions. Schools facilitate the formation of peer groups, and transitions between schools can disrupt established peer networks. Changing school introduces individuals to new peer groups, potentially altering their influences and behaviors based on the norms and values of the new context.
3. Educational transitions and opportunities. The educational trajectory within the school context can also impact exposure to delinquent behaviors. Transitioning from academic to vocational paths or entering the workforce might expose individuals to different peer groups and contexts, altering their likelihood of engaging in certain types of delinquency.
4. Routine activities and peer interactions. Changes in routine activities, influences by school transitions, affect the types and frequency of peer interactions.

Reciprocal effects and mediating factors:
1. Reciprocal influence. Peers influence an individual’s behavior, but individuals also shape their peer groups. This reciprocal influence can either reinforce or challenge delinquent behaviors within the school context.
2. Mediating factors. Factors like social bonds, peer selection, school climate, and the availability of opportunities mediate the interaction between peers and the school/context. Stronger social bonds with prosocial peers might buffer against negative peer influences, while weak social controls within the school might amplify the impact of delinquent peer groups.

Question 25

Explain the assumptions and mechanisms of different theories of desistance.

Answer 25

1. Social control theory Sampson & Laub. Desistance through social bonds: emphasizes the role of positive social bonds (e.g. marriage, employment) in deterring individuals from criminal activities. Turning points such as marriage or employment can initiate and sustain change.
2. Cognitive transformation theory Giordano. Four step process for desistance: involves cognitive openness to change, encountering hooks for change, creating a new conventional self, and changing views about crime and criminal lifestyles. Highlights the importance of personal agency and motivation in the desistance process.
3. Knifing off from the past Elder. Breaking the cycle of disadvantage: involves leaving behind the unwanted past through new life transitions in different environments, changing social environments, cognitive changes, and influences (both good an bad).
4. Scripts for new roles Caspi & Moffitt. Behavioral scripts in novel circumstances: individuals require behavioral scripts to negotiate transition experiences by anticipating events and making predictions. However, these scripts might not always be available.
5. Identity and agency theories. Identity change and discontent: posits that discontent triggers identity changes, leading to hooks, controls, and turning points in an individual’s life. Discontent prompts a shift in identity, initiating changes.

Question 26

Compare the assumptions and mechanisms of different theories of desistance.

Answer 26

1. Role of turning points. Social control theory (S&L) and Knifing off the past (Elder) both emphasize the importance of significant life events or turning points in initiating and sustaining changes away from criminal behavior. Cognitive transformation theory (Giordano) acknowledges the role of critical events (hooks for change) triggering behavioral shifts and creating a new self.
2. Impact of identity and cognitive shifts. Identity and agency theories and Scripts for new roles (Caspi & Moffitt) both underscore the significance of identity changes and cognitive shifts in individuals, albeit from slightly different perspectives. Identity reformulation and cognitive openness to change are crucial elements in these theories.
3. External factors vs. personal agency. Social control theory (S&L) vs. Cognitive transformation theory (Giordano): while S&L focus on external factors like social bonds, Giordano’s theory emphasizes personal agency and motivation in the process of desistance.

Question 27

Contrast the assumptions and mechanisms of different theories of desistance.

Answer 27

1. External vs. internal factors. Social control theory (S&L) vs. Identity and agency theories: the former predominantly emphasizes external factors (like marriage and employment) and their impact on behavior, while the latter highlights internal processes of discontent and identity change as catalysts for desistance.
2. Behavioral scripts and cognitive transformation. Scripts for new roles (Caspi & Moffitt) vs. Cognitive transformation theory (Giordani): while both discuss the importance of cognitive processes, Scripts for new roles emphasizes the need for behavioral scripts in navigating transitions, whereas Giordano’s theory outlines a more linear cognitive process involving openness, hooks for change, identity change and views about crime.
3. Parental and peer influence. Knifing off from the past (Elder) vs. Parental and peer influence (Copp et al.): Elder’s theory focuses on breaking the cycle of disadvantage and transitioning into new environments, whereas Copp et al.’s work delves into the influence of parents and peers in shaping self-reported criminal behavior across the transition to adulthood.

Question 28

Describe how desistance research fits into life course criminological theories and research.

Answer 28

1. Trajectories and transitions. Desistance is a transition: desistance research explores how individuals transition out of criminal behavior, aligning with the life course perspective’s focus on trajectories and transitions. It considers how people move away from crime as they progress through life stages.
2. Turning points and life events. Desistance and turning points: life course theories emphasize the significance of turning points. Desistance research similarly highlights the role of pivotal life events (e.g. marriage, employment, parenthood) that serve as turning points, initiating and sustaining changes away from crime.
3. Cumulative advantage/disadvantage. Cycle of disadvantage: life course criminology emphasizes how early experiences can lead to cumulative advantage or disadvantage. Desistance research, particularly in studies like Elder’s knifing off from the past, examines how breaking the cycle of disadvantage is crucial for individuals leaving behind criminal behavior.
4. Agency an social context. Individual agency: both life course theories and desistance research acknowledge the role of individual agency. Desistance theories such as Giordano’s cognitive transformation theory highlight personal agency in the process of change, aligning with the life course perspective’s focus on individuals choices within social contexts.

Question 29

Describe how desistance research does not fit into life course criminological theories and research.

Answer 29

1. Temporal depth. Limited longitudinal studies: some desistance research might lack the extended temporal depth that life course criminology often advocates for. Longitudinal studies tracking individuals from childhood to adulthood are critical in life course criminology but might not always be available or feasible in desistance research.
2. Socioeconomic context. Broader socioeconomic influences: while desistance research focuses on individual changes and turning points, life course criminology often emphasizes the broader socioeconomic context shaping individuals’ trajectories. Desistance research might not fully capture the systemic influences impacting life courses.

Question 30

Critically evaluate the empirical evidence supporting different theories of desistance

Answer 30

1. Social control theory (Sampson & Laub). Strengths is that there’s empirical evidence supporting the role of marriage, employment, and positive social bonds as turning points reducing criminal behavior. Limitations are that some studies find mixed results regarding the exclusive impact of these factors on desistance. Additionally, the theory might overlook the complexity of individual motivations and cognitive changes.
2. Cognitive transformation theory (Giordano). Strengths is that studies have highlighted the importance of cognitive openness to change and encountering hooks for behavioral shifts. Limitations is while the theory emphasizes personal agency, empirical evidence might not consistently support a linear four-step process of desistance, suggesting variability in individuals’ experiences.
3. Knifing off from the past (Elder) and Scripts for new roles (Caspi & Moffitt). Strengths are that research indicates that transitioning into new environments and adopting new behavioral scripts can facilitate desistance. Limitations is that the evidence might lack consistency, and the theories might not comprehensively explain desistance across diverse populations.
4. Identity and agency theories. Strengths is that there’s empirical evidence supporting the role of discontent triggering identity changes, leading to behavioral shifts. Limitations is while identity shifts are recognized, not all individuals experience discontent or undergo significant identity change before desistance.