LEC - LESSON 1 AND 2 Flashcards by Lady Jaimee Santos

refers to the phenomenon where people fail to notice or appreciate plants in their environment

PLANT BLINDNESS

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It also refers to failing to recognize the role of plants on earth and believing that plants are somehow inferior to animals

PLANT BLINDNESS

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Increased population leads to greater resource consumption, resulting in deforestation, loss of biodiversity, pollution, and climate change.

● Environmental Deterioration

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Higher demand for food can outpace agricultural production, leading to food scarcity and malnutrition, especially in vulnerable population.

● Hunger

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Rapid population growth can strain economic resources, making it difficult for governments to provide adequate jobs, education, and social services, perpetuating cycles of poverty.

● Persistent poverty

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○ Overcrowding and inadequate infrastructure can lead to the spread of diseases, limited access to healthcare, and increased pressure on healthcare systems, exacerbating public health challenges.

● Health issues

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In many ______ developed countries, individual resource use is small. However, a rapidly increasing number of people tends to overwhelm and deplete these countries’ soils, forests, and other natural resources.

less developed and moderately

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In countries, individual resource demands are large, far above the minimum requirements for survival. To satisfy their desires rather than their basic needs, people in more affluent countries exhaust natural resources and degrade the global environment through extravagant consumption and “throwaway” lifestyles.

highly developed

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A _________ born in a highly developed country such as the ________ has a greater impact on the environment and on resource use than a dozen or more children born in a country such as _______.

single child; United States; Nigeria

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all the different kinds of life you’ll find in one area—the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural world.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

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Affected by several human disturbances

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

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Allows humans and other organisms to survive and thrive without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

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Plants produce oxygen through photosynthesis, essential for human and animal life.

A.) Oxygen Production
B.) Carbon Sequestration
C.) Food Source
D.) Medicinal Benefits
E.) Habitat and Biodiversity
F.) Soil Health
G.) Climate Regulation
H.) Aesthetic and Cultural Value
I.) Mental Health Benefits
J.) Economic Value

A.) Oxygen Production

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They absorb carbon dioxide, helping to mitigate climate change.

B.) Carbon Sequestration

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Plants provide fruits, vegetables, grains, and nuts, forming the basis of our diets.

C.) Food Source

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Many plants are sources of pharmaceuticals and traditional medicines.

D.) Medicinal Benefits

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Plants support ecosystems by providing habitat for countless species.

E.) Habitat and Biodiversity

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They prevent soil erosion, enhance soil fertility, and contribute to the water cycle.

F.) Soil Health

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Plants influence local climates by regulating temperature and humidity.

G.) Climate Regulation

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Plants contribute to beauty, inspire art, and hold cultural significance in many societies

H.) Aesthetic and Cultural Value

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Green spaces and plants have been shown to improve mood and reduce stress.

I.) Mental Health Benefits

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Plants are vital to agriculture, forestry, and industries like landscaping and pharmaceuticals.

J.) Economic Value

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SCOPE OF BOTANY

1-6

● Effects of Global climate on plants
● Molecules that make up plant cells
● Producing enough food to support the ever-expanding world population
● Identification of future drugs to treat diseases such as cancer or AIDS.
● Plants that are in danger of extinction and keeping these organisms from disappearing forever from our planet
● The effect of human-produced pollution on plants

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DISCIPLINES OF BOTANY

(enumerate the 12)

Molecular Biology
Plant Biochemistry
Plant Cell Biology
Plant Anatomy
5.Plant Morphology
6.Plant Physiology
Plant Genetics
Plant Heredity and variation
Plant Ecology
Plant systematics
Plant taxonomy
Paleobotany

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Study the structures and functions of important biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.

Molecular Biology

The study of the chemical interactions within plants, including the variety of chemicals that plants produce.

Plant Biochemistry

Encompasses the structures, functions, and life processes of plant cells.

Plant Cell Biology

Microscopic plant structure (cells and tissues)

Plant Anatomy

Refers to the structures of plant parts such as leaves, roots, and stems, including their evolution and development

Plant Morphology

Study different processes such as photosynthesis and mineral nutrition to understand how plants function.

Plant Physiology

Plant Heredity and variation.

Plant Genetics

The Study of the interrelationships among plants and between plants and their environment.

Plant Ecology

Encompasses the evolutionary relationships among different plant groups.

Plant systematics

A sub discipline of systematics, deals with the description, naming, and classification of plants.

Plant taxonomy

Is the study of the biology and the evolution of plants in the geologic past.

Paleobotany

OTHER SPECIALIZATIONS OF BOTANY - 5

➔ Bryology - The study of mosses and similar plants ➔ Agronomy- field crops and soils ➔ Horticulture- Ornamental plants and fruit and vegetable crops ➔ Forestry - forest conservation and forest products such as lumber ➔ Economic Botany - Plants with commercial importance

the study of mosses and similar plants ➔ Bryology ➔ Agronomy ➔ Horticulture ➔ Forestry ➔ Economic Botany

➔ Bryology

field crops and soils ➔ Bryology ➔ Agronomy ➔ Horticulture ➔ Forestry ➔ Economic Botany

➔ Agronomy

Ornamental plants and fruit and vegetable crops ➔ Bryology ➔ Agronomy ➔ Horticulture ➔ Forestry ➔ Economic Botany

➔ Horticulture

forest conservation and forest products such as lumber ➔ Bryology ➔ Agronomy ➔ Horticulture ➔ Forestry ➔ Economic Botany

➔ Forestry

Plants with commercial importance ➔ Bryology ➔ Agronomy ➔ Horticulture ➔ Forestry ➔ Economic Botany

➔ Economic Botany

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS?

● Plants are highly organized ● Plants take in and use energy ● Plants respond to stimuli ● Plants grow and develop ● Plants reproduce ● Plant DNA transmits information from one generation to the next ● Plant populations undergo genetic changes over time

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS Through photosynthesis, plants convert sunlight into chemical energy, using it to grow and sustain their metabolic processes.

● Plants take in and use energy

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS Plants can react to environmental factors such as light, gravity, and touch, enabling them to adapt their growth and orientation for survival.

● Plants respond to stimuli

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS Plants undergo growth throughout their life cycle, increasing in size and complexity, from germination to maturity.

● Plants grow and develop

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS Plants can reproduce sexually (via seeds and flowers) or asexually (through methods like cloning), ensuring the continuation of their species.

● Plants reproduce

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS Plant DNA carries genetic information that is passed down from one generation to the next, guiding their development and traits.

● Plant DNA transmits information from one generation to the next

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS Plant populations can evolve through genetic variation and natural selection, leading to adaptations that enhance survival in changing environments.

● Plant populations undergo genetic changes over time

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS Plants exhibit a complex structure, with specialized cells and tissues that perform various functions, such as photosynthesis, nutrient transport, and support.

● Plants are highly organized

Human Population will increase to ____

9.74 billion by the year 2050

EFFECTS OF A CONSTANTLY INCREASING POPULATION -4

EFFECTS OF A CONSTANTLY INCREASING POPULATION ● Environmental Deterioration ● Hunger ● Persistent poverty ● Health issues

Lesson 2 is about?

Chemistry of Life

●It is inevitable that before we study the plant cellular function, we should first understand the structure and properties of the major types of biological molecules.

CHEMICAL BASIS OF PLANT LIFE

Remember that the _________ and __________ characteristics of cells as well as other cellular structures are derived directly from the activities of the molecules of which they are composed.

morphological and physiological

TRUE OR FALSE: For us to understand the basis of plant life, we should be provided the necessary basic information about the chemistry of life.

CHEMICAL BASIS OF PLANT LIFE TRUE

➔ Basic units of matter and the defining structure of elements

ATOMS

➔ The nucleus of every atom, except the hydrogen, consists of both positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons.

ATOMS

➔ The number of protons in an atom, which equals the number of electrons, resulting in no net charge ◆ Because it is the electrons that mean the chemical behavior of an atom, all the atoms of a given element have the same atomic number.

ATOMIC NUMBER

➔ Neutrons are uncharged subatomic particles of essentially the same mass as protons.

NEUTRONS

➔ They contribute to the structural stability of the nucleus.

NEUTRONS

➔ Because of neutrons, an element can exist in several physically distinguishable but chemically identical forms, which is called ______.

ISOTOPES

➔ Because of neutrons, an element can exist in several physically distinguishable but chemically identical forms, which is called ISOTOPES.

NEUTRONS

● The atoms that make up a molecule are joined by?

CHEMICAL BONDS

Atoms can attain a more stable arrangement of electrons in their ____________ by interacting with one another.

CHEMICAL BONDS

● Atoms can attain a more stable arrangement of electrons in their outermost shell by interacting with one another.

covalent bond

formed when electrons are shared between two atoms

covalent bond

strong bonds between the atoms that make up a molecule

covalent bond

● The formation of a __________ between two atoms is governed by the fundamental principle that an atom is most stable when its outermost electron shell is filled.

covalent bond

TRUE OR FALSE: ● The formation of a covalent bond between two atoms is governed by the fundamental principle that an atom is most stable when its outermost electron shell is not filled.

FALSE ans: "filled"

TRUE OR FALSE: the number of bonds an atom can form depends on the number of electrons needed to fill its outer shell

TRUE

○ In most cases, two atoms can be joined by bonds in which more than one pair of electrons are shared. -2

■ DOUBLE BOND ● A bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. ■ TRIPLE BOND ● A bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.

formed when electrons transfer from one atom to the other.

Ionic Bond

Although individual noncovalent bonds are weak, large numbers of them acting together create additive attractive forces.

TRUE OR FALSE: Ionic bonds does not play an important role in binding protein molecules to DNA molecules.

FALSE Ans: it plays an important role

It is formed between positively charged nitrogen atoms in the protein and the negatively charged oxygen atoms in the DNA.

Ionic bonds

The DNA molecule itself consists of two separate strands held together by ?

Noncovalent hydrogen bonds

form between abundant electronegative atoms, such as oxygen and nitrogen, which bears a partial negative charge and abundant hydrogen atoms, which bears a partial positive charge.

Hydrogen bonds

TRUE OR FALSE: a single noncovalent bond is relatively weak and easily broken, but large numbers of these bonds between two molecules make the overall complex quite stable

TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE: Plant life, as well as other organisms, is totally dependent on water.

TRUE

it only contains one molecule of oxygen and two molecules of hydrogen, a water molecule has a unique structure that gives extraordinary properties.

WATER

a highly asymmetric molecule with an oxygen atom at one end and two hydrogen atoms at the opposite end.

WATER

the covalent bonds that form in the water molecule are highly polarized

WATER

each molecule joined transiently with hydrogen bond lattice.

WATER

PROPERTIES OF WATER IMPORTANT TO PLANT LIFE -4

PROPERTIES OF WATER IMPORTANT TO PLANT LIFE TEMPERATURE BUFFER CAPILLARY ACTION SOLVENT

TRUE OR FALSE: Each water molecule can form hydrogen bonds when the partially positive charge hydrogen of one water molecule becomes aligned next to a partially negative charge oxygen of another molecule. Hydrogen bonds would be formed. Consequently, this extensive hydrogen bonding produces a highly interconnected network of water molecules.

TRUE

● Water acts as a temperature buffer because of its high specific heat capacity, high heat of vaporization, and high latent heat of fusion.

TEMPERATURE BUFFER

__________ means that when water is heated, most of the thermal energy is consumed in disrupting hydrogen bonds rather than contributing to molecular motion. As water receives rapid temperature fluctuations that adds stability to the plant body.

high heat of vaporization

When we are talking of___________________, it means that water molecules would require so much energy to convert the water from its LIQUID state to its GASEOUS state by breaking the hydrogen bonds that hold one molecule to another water molecule. That this high heat of vaporization would make the water resist evaporation and that would be the cause of the cooling effect on plants.

high heat of vaporization

○ On the other hand, when we are talking about the ______________, it is the reverse of heat of vaporization wherein a water molecule takes a lot of energy to convert it from solid to a liquid state. In the same manner, a lot of energy must be released from water to freeze, thus the water receives the plant body from freezing.

latent of fusion or high latent heat of fusion.

plants use capillary action to bring up water up to the roots and stems to the rest of the plant body

CAPILLARY ACTION

The molecules of the water are attached to the molecules of the inside of the stem and this attraction is used to help force the water up from the ground and dispense it throughout the plant body.

CAPILLARY ACTION

● This ________________ happened because of the property of water that is cohesive, adhesive property and high surface tension.

CAPILLARY ACTION

the ability of one water molecule to bind with another water molecule - So the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules make liquid water self-sticky and the hydrogens of one water molecule are attracted to the oxygen from other water molecules.

cohesion

it refers to the attraction of water molecules to non-water hydrophilic substances. -So this property of water gives it the ability to climb the walls of any container it is in.

Adhesion property

resulting from cohesive forces, allows it to form a continuous column in plant vessels, facilitating upward movement.

high surface tension

● The hydrogen bonds that are formed at the water molecules can be able to dissolve more different kinds of solutes than any other solvents.

SOLVENT

● A small volume of aqueous fluid present within a plant cell would contain a remarkably complex mixture of dissolved substances but water is more than just a solvent. It also determines the structure of biological molecules and the types of interaction in which they can engage.

SOLVENT

TRUE OR FALSE: Moreover, it is chemically inert that water will react even if they are not enzymatically designed to react.

FALSE Ans: Moreover, it is chemically inert that water will not react unless they are enzymatically designed to react.

TRUE OR FALSE: water is also the medium to reach materials moved from one compartment of the cell to another.

TRUE

One of the important properties of water to the plants is their transparency to life.

TRANSPARENT TO LIGHT

●The chloroplasts inside the cytoplasm of the cell are surrounded by water and the light that penetrates in water can be absorbed by the thylakoids.

TRANSPARENT TO LIGHT

ROLE OF WATER IN PLANT

➢ Major components in plant cells ○ almost 70% of the plant cell is composed of water ➢ An excellent solvent for the uptake and transport of substances within the plant body. ➢ Good medium and react in many biochemical reactions ➢ Temperature stabilizations ➢ Provide structural support via turgor pressure ○ specifically, the one that you can find in the leaves of the plants ➢ Plays a vital role in cell elongation and growth

So molecules can be categorized based on how they respond to water molecules. It can either be ___________ or ____________ molecules

hydrophobic or hydrophilic

● sometimes called as hydrophobes

HYDROPHOBIC MOLECULES

When the hydrophobic molecules are added to water, they would form what we call _______ to have minimal contact with water.

micelle ➔ Micelles are clamped that form a cage where hydrogen bonds between the water molecules are broken down, thus formed by means of what you call an endothermic reaction that would cause the entropy of the system to decrease hydrocarbon groups.

● Interactions that occur between hydrophobic molecules are what we call ?

Van der Waals interactions

● Oils and fats are some of the _____________ molecules that are found in the body.

hydrophobic

● they are nonpolar molecules that are water-fearing, thus do not dissolve in water since these molecules are uncharged, and usually form few or no hydrogen bond at all

HYDROPHOBIC MOLECULES

● Sometimes they are called hydrophiles.

HYDROPHILIC MOLECULES

● They are polar molecules that are water-loving, thus they can be dissolved in the polar molecules of water.

HYDROPHILIC MOLECULES

● Hydrophilic molecules can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, and this mixing is ____________, thus the entropy of the system would be increased.

exothermic

● Salts and ions, which are molecules with charged particles, are examples of __________ molecules found in the plant body.

hydrophilic

CLASSIFICATION OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES BY FUNCTION -4

- MACROMOLECULES - BUILDING BLOCKS OF MACROMOLECULES - METABOLIC INTERMEDIATES (METABOLITES) - MISCELLANEIOUS FUNCTIONS

In plant cells, the organic molecules are divided into four categories based on the role in metabolism -4

➢ Macromolecules ➢ Building blocks of macromolecules ➢ Metabolites ➢ Miscellaneous functions

● Contains carbon atoms ○ these are molecules that are highly organized with carbon atoms.

MACROMOLECULES

TRUE OR FALSE: MACROMOLECULES Its shape and size would vary depending on its function.

TRUE

● Some macromolecules form the structure of the cells, as well as carry out the activities of cells with great precision and efficiency.

MACROMOLECULES

● Macromolecules can be divided into four major categories:

● Macromolecules can be divided into four major categories, ➔ carbohydrates ➔ proteins ➔ lipids ➔ nucleic acids

MACROMOLECULES ● These macromolecules are constructed from monomers through the process of ________________

polymerization

● The macromolecules found within the plant cell have a short lifetime, as compared with the cell itself, except the deoxyribonucleic acid or the DNA, which continuously breaks down and being replaced by newly synthesized macromolecules.

BUILDING BLOCKS OF MACROMOLECULES

TRUE OR FALSE: BUILDING BLOCKS OF MACROMOLECULES Consequently, cells maintain a pool of low molecular weight precursors that are readily available to form macromolecules.

TRUE

● The macromolecules are the ___________, and this includes the simple sugars, which are the precursors of _______________, the fatty acids, which are incorporated to form into lipids, the amino acids, which are precursors or protein, and the nucleotides, which are the precursors for the formation of the nucleic acids.

monomers; polysaccharides

The molecules found in the cell are synthesized in a step-by-step sequence, beginning with the specific starting material, and this is called the METABOLIC PATHWAY.

METABOLIC INTERMEDIATES (METABOLITES)

● The series of chemical reactions can either be catabolic reactions or anabolic reactions.

METABOLIC INTERMEDIATES (METABOLITES)

● The series of chemical reactions can either be _______ reactions or __________ reactions.

catabolic reactions or anabolic reactions

■ Energy-releasing processes. ■ Break down complex metabolites into simpler ones

○ CATABOLIC REACTION

■ Energy-consuming processes. ■ Build up new molecules.

○ ANABOLIC REACTION

When chemical bonds are broken, energy is released, which drives _________________ to form new bonds, the energy release is generally stored in high energy bonds of intermediate-energy carrier molecules, which is called ______________ or ___.

anabolic reactions; adenosine triphosphate or ATP

the conversion of one molecule to another may either be in the dehydration synthesis or hydrolysis

biochemical reactions

● The biochemical reactions in the conversion of one molecule to another may either be in the

dehydration synthesis or hydrolysis

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS or HYDROLYSIS ● In the ______________, the monomers that are made from a single subunit would combine with each other via the covalent bond to form polymers.

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS or HYDROLYSIS ● The reactions would allow the monomers to release water molecules as by products.

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS or HYDROLYSIS ● As additional monomers would join through multiple dehydration synthesis reactions, the chain of repeating monomers begin to form what we call now a monomer.

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

● So different types of monomers can combine in many configurations, which makes the diversity of macromolecules found within the cell.

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS or HYDROLYSIS ● In __________ reactions, the polymers are broken down into monomers by using water molecules and catalyzed by an enzyme.

HYDROLYSIS

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS or HYDROLYSIS ● As the polymer is broken into two components, one part would gain a hydrogen atom and the other gains a hydroxyl group from the split of the water molecule.

HYDROLYSIS

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS or HYDROLYSIS ● However, in ionized molecules, one part gains two hydrogen atoms and a positive charge while the other part gains one oxygen atom and a negative charge.

HYDROLYSIS

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS or HYDROLYSIS ● This takes note that there are some compounds that are formed along the metabolic pathways leading to the end products that might have no function per se and these compounds are called _____________________.

-HYDROLYSIS -metabolic intermediates.

Bulk of the dry wheat of a cell is made out of macromolecules and their direct precursors. The molecules of miscellaneous function would include the (5):

➔ vitamins ➔ hormones ➔ ATP ➔ regulatory molecules ➔ metabolic waste

which are substances that primarily function adjuncts to proteins Choices: ➔ vitamins ➔ hormones ➔ ATP ➔ regulatory molecules ➔ metabolic waste

vitamins

Bulk of the dry wheat of a cell is made out of macromolecules and their direct precursors.

MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS

which are signal molecules that would affect the plant growth ➔ vitamins ➔ hormones ➔ ATP ➔ regulatory molecules ➔ metabolic waste

hormones

which are molecules that are involved in energy storage ➔ vitamins ➔ hormones ➔ ATP ➔ regulatory molecules ➔ metabolic waste

ATP

it could be _________________ such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate or what we call the cyclic AMP ➔ vitamins ➔ hormones ➔ ATP ➔ regulatory molecules ➔ metabolic waste

regulatory molecules

the other _______________ that are produced in the cell such as the urea ➔ vitamins ➔ hormones ➔ ATP ➔ regulatory molecules ➔ metabolic waste

metabolic waste

So the four types of biological molecules or what we call biomolecules found in plants are the ➔ Carbohydrates ◆ carbohydrates are found in the cell wall of the chloroplasts ➔ Lipids ➔ Proteins ◆ proteins are found in the plasma lemma (plasma membrane), nuclear and below ribosomes, microtubules and DNA ➔ nucleic acids

PLANT BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

Four types of biological molecules

➔ Carbohydrates: are found in the cell wall of the chloroplasts ➔ Lipids ➔ Protein: are found in the plasma lemma (plasma membrane), nuclear and below ribosomes, microtubules and DNA ➔ nucleic acids

sometimes called glycans

CARBOHYDRATES

● The simplest sugar is also known as the monosaccharide.

CARBOHYDRATES

● It consists of carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms

CARBOHYDRATES

● The general formula of carbohydrate is , wherein the number of hydrogen atoms is doubled depending on the number of carbon atoms.

CARBOHYDRATES is (CH2O) n ○ For example, glucose has six carbon atoms, then the same number of oxygen atoms is present in the sugar, while doubling the amount of hydrogen atoms, thus we have the formula of C6H12O6.

So each sugar molecule is made of carbon atoms, backbone and are linked together in a linear array in a single hydroxyl group, except for those that contain carbonyl groups.

CARBOHYDRATES

If the carbonyl group is located at the internal position to form a ketone group, the sugar is called ______. On the other hand, when the carbonyl group is located at one end of the sugar, it forms the aldehyde group and the sugar is called an _____.

ketose aldose

CARBOHYDRATES ➔ Contains 3 carbons are known as? ➔ Contains 4 carbons are known as? ➔ Contains 5 carbons are known as? ➔ Contains 6 carbons are known as? ➔ Contains 7 carbons are known as?

CARBOHYDRATES ➔ trioses ➔ tetroses ➔ pentoses ➔ hexoses ➔ heptoses

Aldose (O=C-H) or Ketoses (C=O)? ○ Glyceraldehyde (triose) ○ Ribose (pentose) ○ Glucose (hexose)

★ Aldose (O=C-H)

Aldose (O=C-H) or Ketoses (C=O)? ○ Dihydroxyacetone (triose) ○ Ribulose (pentose) ○ Fructose (hexose)

★ Ketoses (C=O)

In the two monosaccharides, either an aldose or a ketose, are linked together, they form what we call now disaccharides. The sugar linkage between sugars to form larger molecules is called covalent glycosidic bond.

SUGAR LINKAGE

covalent glycosidic bond.

● This bond is formed by the reaction between carbon one of one sugar and the hydroxyl group of another sugar, which generates carbon, oxygen, carbon or COC linkage between the two sugars. ○ Sugar 1 (C1) + Sugar 2 (-OH)

SUGAR LINKAGE

● Sucrose (glucose + fructose) ○ The sucrose, which is commonly known as table sugar, is a disaccharide. ○ we all know that sucrose is a major component called a plant sap that carries chemical energy from one part of the plant to another. ● Maltose (glucose + glucose) ● Lactose (galactose + glucose) are examples of?

EXAMPLES OF DISACCHARIDES

TRUE OR FALSE: Sugar can NOT be a simple repeating sugar subunit, forming large linear and branched molecules

FALSE Ans: Sugar can be a simple repeating sugar subunit, forming large linear and branched molecules

● the sugar is linked together to form short or small chains

OLIGOSACCHARIDES

● Mostly oligosaccharides are covalently attached to proteins and lipids, hence they are converted into glycoprotein and glycolipids respectively. These _________ are commonly found projecting from the surface of the plasmalemma that would function in distinguishing one type of cell from another, as well as they are used to facilitate the cell's interaction with the surroundings.

OLIGOSACCHARIDES

● Mostly oligosaccharides are covalently attached to proteins and lipids, hence they are converted into __________ and __________ respectively.

glycoprotein and glycolipids

● are long chains of repeating sugar subunit ○ Cellulose molecules are unbranched and highly extended and are bundled together into tough fibers and assume the structural stability of the plant cell. ○ On the other hand, the starch molecules have a helical arrangement and used by the cell for storage of energy

● In plants, the most common polysaccharides are cellulose and starch.

POLYSACCHARIDES

○ ____________ molecules are unbranched and highly extended and are bundled together into tough fibers and assume the structural stability of the plant cell.

Cellulose

○ On the other hand, the ________ molecules have a helical arrangement and used by the cell for storage of energy

starch

So in summary, carbohydrates function primarily as source and storage of chemical energy in the cell. It is also important in supplying the carbon atoms in building materials needed by the cell during their metabolism, thus __________ would play a vital role as a structural component of the cells.

CARBOHYDRATES

_____ are a diverse group of non-polar molecules that can be dissolved in organic solvent and they are unable to dissolve in water. ● So the fatty acids are long and branched chains with a single carboxyl group at one end. So the hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic while the carboxyl group is hydrophilic. Since they both have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, they are termed as AMPHIPATHIC MOLECULES. ● So fatty acids differ from one another in the length of their hydrocarbon chain and the presence or absence of double bonds. ○ Saturated Fatty Acids: ■ Lack of double bonds. ■ Typically, solid at room temperature. ○ Unsaturated Fatty Acids: ■ Possess double bonds. ■ Usually liquid at room temperature (oils).

LIPIDS

● It consists of one molecule of glycerol that is linked with ester bonds to three fatty acids. That is why they are sometimes called triacylglycerol or triglycerides.

LIPIDS

● It consists of one molecule of glycerol that is linked with ester bonds to three fatty acids. That is why they are sometimes called ____________ or ____________.

LIPIDS triacylglycerol or triglycerides.

are a diverse group of non-polar molecules that can be dissolved in organic solvent and they are unable to dissolve in water.

LIPIDS

● So the fatty acids are long and branched chains with a single carboxyl group at one end. So the hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic while the carboxyl group is hydrophilic. Since they both have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, they are termed as ______________________.

LIPIDS AMPHIPATHIC MOLECULES.

● So fatty acids differ from one another in the length of their hydrocarbon chain and the presence or absence of double bonds. -2

LIPIDS ○ Saturated Fatty Acids: ■ Lack of double bonds. ■ Typically, solid at room temperature. ○ Unsaturated Fatty Acids: ■ Possess double bonds. ■ Usually liquid at room temperature (oils).

Lack of double bonds. ■ Typically, solid at room temperature.

Saturated Fatty Acids

Possess double bonds. ■ Usually liquid at room temperature (oils).

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

● 2 fatty acids + 1 glycerol ● ________ are the main structural components of the plasmalemma; and the characteristic feature of the ___________ which have hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties makes the plasma lemma a selectively permeable membrane.

PHOSPHOLIPIDS (meaning and sa 2 blanks)

● These molecules would resemble a triacylglycerol but have only two fatty acid chains thus they are also called the _____________.

PHOSPHOLIPIDS diacylglycerol.

● 2 -OH groups in glycerol linked to fatty acids ● 3rd -OH group linked to phosphoric acid ○ The third hydroxyl of the glycerol is covalently bonded to a phosphate group which is covalently bonded to a small polar group.

○ So the head of the possible lipids that contain the phosphate group is ___________ while the two fatty acid tails are ___________.

phosphate group is hydrophilic while the two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic

○ So the head of the possible lipids that contain the phosphate group is hydrophilic while the two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic.

● Macromolecules that play a vital role in all cell activities

PROTEIN

● So in the plasma lemma of the plant cells proteins form channels and pumps and they also act as transporters of various substances. So this probably would be the reason for being selectively permeable to materials that move inside or taken out of the cell.

PROTEIN

● They can act as an enzyme that would catalyze the rate of metabolic reactions

PROTEIN

● responsible in carrying messages from one cell to another and they would act as membrane signal receptors and the third would mean how the cell would react to a particular substance.

PROTEIN

● Moving parts and propel organelles within the cytoplasm

PROTEIN

can also be used for the machinery or they are responsible for the machinery to various biological movements such as the cyclosis which is the streaming movement of the chloroplasts that is found in the hydrolysis.

PROTEIN

_______ which is the streaming movement of the chloroplasts that is found in the hydrolysis.

cyclosis

○ ________ are the ones that are responsible for the movement of this chloroplast in the periphery of the hydrilla cell.

PROTEIN

● Furthermore, __________ can act as hormones, toxin or antifreeze molecules that would probably control and coordinate various biological activities.

PROTEIN

● are the monomers of proteins

AMINO ACIDS

● So each polymer of protein has a unique sequence of amino acids that give them characteristically different from one another.

AMINO ACIDS

● are organic molecules that would contain both the carboxyl group and the amino group which are separated from each other by a single carbon atom which is called the alpha carbon.

AMINO ACIDS

○ So the R group or what we call the side chain is bonded to the alpha carbon and they are highly variable to the commonly used __ amino acids in the construction of proteins, specifically those that are encoded by the deoxyribonucleic acid or the DNA.

20 amino acids

The amino acids are classified into four groups based on their characters of their side chain: -4

➔ POLAR CHARGED ➔ POLAR UNCHARGED ➔ NONPOLAR ➔ SIDE CHAINS WITH UNIQUE PROPERTIES

◆ ____ ______ amino acids would include: ● aspartic acid ● glutamic acid ● lysine ● Arginine ● histidine

➔ POLAR CHARGED

◆ They contain side chains that are relatively strong organic acids and bases thus they become fully charged.

➔ POLAR CHARGED

◆ They can form ionic bonds with other charged species in the cell. For example, the passively charged arginine residues of histone proteins are linked by the ionic bonds to the negatively charged phosphate groups of the DNA.

➔ POLAR CHARGED

◆ _____ ______amino acids would include: ● Asparagine ● Glutamine ● Threonine ● Serine ● Tyrosine

➔ POLAR UNCHARGED

◆ The side chains of these amino acids have a negative or positive charge and they can form hydrogen bonds with other molecules that would include the water.

➔ POLAR UNCHARGED

◆ non-polar amino acids would include 7 *AVVLIMPT ● Alanine ● Valine ● Leucine ● Isoleucine ● Methionine ● phenylalanine ● Tryptophan

➔ NONPOLAR

◆ The side chains of these non-polar amino acids are hydrophobic and are not capable of forming ____________ ____ or they cannot interact with water.

➔ NONPOLAR electrostatic bonds

◆ Moreover, these non-polar amino acids lack ______ and _________.

➔ NONPOLAR lack oxygen and nitrogen

◆ have unique properties that would separate them from the other categories: ● Glycine ● Proline ● Cysteine

➔ SIDE CHAINS WITH UNIQUE PROPERTIES

○ side chains consist of only hydrogen and provide a site where the backbones of two polypeptides can approach one another very closely

➔ SIDE CHAINS WITH UNIQUE PROPERTIES ● Glycine

○ a unique amino acid of having the alpha amino group as part of the ring and does not readily fit into an ordered secondary structure that would often produce kinks or hinges

➔ SIDE CHAINS WITH UNIQUE PROPERTIES ● Proline

○ One interesting feature of cysteine is the presence of a reactive sulfhydryl group that is often linked to another cysteine residue, what we call the disulfide bridge. ○ This side disulfide bridge would help stabilize the intricate shapes of proteins that are usually found on the surface of the extracellular environment subjected to physical and other chemical stresses.

➔ SIDE CHAINS WITH UNIQUE PROPERTIES ● Cysteine

The structures of the proteins can be described at four levels of organization, namely the primary structure, the secondary structure, the tertiary structure and the quaternary structure.

PROTEIN STRUCTURE

The primary structure is the amino acid sequence of a protein while the three other structures refer to the molecular organization.

PROTEIN STRUCTURE

● the ________ structure of a protein refers to the linear number and order of amino acids present. ● The convention for the designation of the order of amino acid is that the n-terminal end, the one that would bear the residue with a free alpha amino group, is the first amino acid and is found to the left side of the chain. ● The end of the chain, which is found of course in the rightmost part, is the c-terminal end where amino acid has a residue that would contain a free alpha carbonyl group.

PROTEIN STRUCTURE: PRIMARY STRUCTURE

it describes the conformation of a portion of the polypeptide chain. ○ When we are talking of conformation, we are referring to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms and its spatial organization

SECONDARY STRUCTURE

● So there are actually two proposed conformation of proteins, namely the alpha helix conformation and beta pleated sheet conformation.

SECONDARY STRUCTURE

■ The backbone of the polypeptide assumes the form of a cylindrical twisting spiral form. ■ The backbone lies on the inside of the helix while the side chains are projected upward. ■ The helical structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of one peptide bond and those situated just above and below it are along the spiral.

○ ALPHA HELIX CONFORMATION

■ the backbone of each segment of polypeptide assumes a folded or in a pleated conformation wherein they are lying side by side. ■ So it is characterized by hydrogen bonds that are oriented perpendicular to the long axis of the polypeptide chain that project across from one part of the chain to another.

○ BETA PLEATED SHEET

● referring to the complete three-dimensional structure of the polypeptide units of a given protein. ● It is stabilized by an array of non-covalent bonds between the side chains of the protein. ● The _________ structure also refers to the spatial relationship of the different secondary structure to one another within a polypeptide chain and how these secondary structures would fold into each three-dimensional form of a protein.

TERTIARY STRUCTURE

● So if a protein would contain two or more different polypeptide chains that are held in association by the non-covalent forces and stabilize the tertiary structures of protein, this level or the structure of protein is what we call quaternary structure.

QUATERNARY STRUCTURE

● a protein that is composed of two identical subunits is called ___________, while those proteins that are composed of two unidentical subunits are called ___________.

two identical subunits is called homodimer and two unidentical subunits are called heterodimer.

● one of the most important proteins - are biological catalysts that lower the activation energy for reactions. - the lower the activation energy for a reaction, the faster rate of reaction would occur. - _______ increase the rate of chemical reactions that would take place within the non-living cells by lowering the activation energy. ○ For example, the reaction of glucose and ATP to produce the byproducts 6 glucose phosphate and adenosine diphosphate ADP.

ENZYMES

TRUE OR FALSE: The higher the activation energy for a reaction, the faster rate of reaction would occur.

FALSE Ans: ENZYMES- The lower the activation energy for a reaction, the faster rate of reaction would occur.

● energy input required to begin the chemical reactions

ACTIVATION ENERGY

The energy is needed to break existing bonds before new bonds can be formed.

ACTIVATION ENERGY

It requires large amount of activation energy as shown by the red line in the graph to pursue the reaction as compared with a catalyzed mediated reaction So which means that enzymes would decrease the required activation energy that would allow a reaction to proceed at a much faster rate. So virtually all metabolic reactions would require enzymes, otherwise it will proceed very slowly

ACTIVATION ENERGY

ACTIVATION ENERGY - TRUE OR FALSE: enzymes would INCREASE the required activation energy that would allow a reaction to proceed at a much faster rate.

FALSE Ans: enzymes would "decrease" the required activation energy that would allow a reaction to proceed at a much faster rate.

HOW DOES THE ENZYMES WORK TO CATALYZE THE REACTION? -2

LOCK AND KEY MODEL INDUCED FIT MODEL

wherein it says here that the active site of an enzyme and the active site would be the location on the surface of the enzyme where SUBSTRATE would BIND would have a SPECIFIC shape and only the substrate will fit into it like a lock and a key.

LOCK AND KEY MODEL

LOCK AND KEY MODEL - TRUE OR FALSE: ○ substrate are those molecules upon which an enzyme would act with

TRUE

LOCK AND KEY MODEL - TRUE OR FALSE: Enzymes are very specific to the substrates that they are interacting with and each substrate have their own specific type of enzymes with active site that conform to the shape of a particular type of a substrate. (e.g. ribulose bisphosphate or RUBP)

TRUE

LOCK AND KEY MODEL - TRUE OR FALSE: ➔ So for example, if the enzyme is amylase, it ONLY ACCEPTS the sugar amylose but not the sugar lactose. On the other hand, if the enzyme is the lactase, it only accepts lactose but NOT amylose although they are both sugar in nature.

TRUE

LOCK AND KEY MODEL - TRUE OR FALSE: ◆ the name of the enzyme is dependent on the substrate that they are acting with and usually ends with the suffix ASE. -So for our previous example, the amylose would be the substrate so the enzyme is called the amylase. The substrate will be the lactose, so the enzyme is called a lactase.

TRUE

● Updated model ● In this model, the active sites of enzymes change their shape as they interact with the substrate.

INDUCED FIT MODEL

● So once the substrate is fully locked in and already in the exact position in the active site, the catalysis can now begin.

INDUCED FIT MODEL

● This only means that the precise orientation of the enzyme required for CATALYTIC ACTIVITY can be induced by the binding of the substrate by which conformational shape change may occur in the enzyme's active site in order to precisely feed the substrate.

INDUCED FIT MODEL

● Moreover, there is a precise substrate interaction that would occur in the active site and this is being stabilized by numerous WEAK INTERACTIONS like hydrogen bonds, electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic contacts and Van der Waals forces.

INDUCED FIT MODEL

INDUCED FIT MODEL - TRUE OR FALSE: Enzymes need to form complexes with their substrate

TRUE

INDUCED FIT MODEL are enzymes that would catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from high energy

kinases

phosphate donating molecules to specific substrates and in this case, it is the ____________ _________.

phosphoenol pyruvate

So the substrates in the given example that are shown in the image are the adenosine diphosphate or ADP and the phosphoenol pyruvate or PEP while the enzyme is the pyruvate kinase. ★ When we are speaking of kinases, kinases are enzymes that would catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from high energy, phosphate donating molecules to specific substrates and in this case, it is the phosphoenol pyruvate.

INDUCED FIT MODEL

● the binding of a substrate to an enzyme active site ★ Remember that when the substrate ADP and PEP is already in the active site of the enzyme pyruvate kinase, the conformational shape of the active site changes to fit the two substrates to begin with the reaction.

ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX (ES COMPLEX)

ES COMPLEX - TRUE OR FALSE: ● Remember that the formation of the ES complex is INDEPENDENT on the shape of the active site that would allow the binding of the substrate.

Ans: Remember that the formation of the ES complex is DEPENDENT on the shape of the active site that would allow the binding of the substrate.

During the action of the enzyme, the phosphate in the PEP or the phosphoenol pyruvate will be transferred to adenosine diphosphate or ADP. Thus forming the byproducts adenosine triphosphate or the ATP and pyruvate acid. Secondly, these end products, the ATP and pyruvate will be released by the pyruvate kinase.

ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX (ES COMPLEX)

ES COMPLEX - TRUE OR FALSE: There are NO CHANGES that happen in the enzyme, so that the active site can accept another ADP and PEP substrate to pursue another reaction. So the activity of enzymes is dependent on its environmental conditions depending on their localization, meaning they have their own specific optimal conditions. However, the activity of enzymes is faster at higher temperature rather than the lower temperature. But remember here that the temperature must not be too high, that it could change the shape of the active site or sometimes we call it as the DENATURATION of the protein because high temperature would denature the proteins and that would allow the shape of the active site to be changed and it is not already compatible for the specific substrate in which they should be acting upon weight.

TRUE - NO CHANGES TRUE - DENATURATION

ES COMPLEX - TRUE OR FALSE: Another factor would be the ACIDITY and ALKALINITY that would depend on the activity of the enzyme. Remember that each particular type of enzyme has an optimal pH or the acidity or alkalinity in order for them to perform their activity efficiently.

TRUE

It is the high temperature would denature the proteins and that would allow the shape of the active site to be changed and it is not already compatible for the specific substrate in which they should be acting upon weight.

DENATURATION

long chains of nucleotides ○ nucleotides would be the monomer of the ______ ____.

There are two types of nucleic acids namely the ______________________and the __________________________.

ribonucleic acid (RNA) and the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Each nucleotide is composed of: - 3

● pentose sugar ○ The five carbon sugar or the pentose sugar in nucleotides can either be a ribose sugar or a deoxyribose sugar which is present in the RNA and DNA respectively. ○ So the two sugars are different by the presence of the hydroxyl group on the two prime carbon of the ribose and it is absent in the two prime carbon of the deoxyribose. ● nitrogenous base ● phosphate group

The five carbon sugar or the pentose sugar in nucleotides can either be a ribose sugar or a deoxyribose sugar which is present in the RNA and DNA respectively. So the two sugars are different by the presence of the hydroxyl group on the two prime carbon of the ribose and it is absent in the two prime carbon of the deoxyribose.

pentose sugar

When sugar and a nitrogenous base come together, they form a ____________.

nucleotide

The linkage that would form between the base and the one prime carbon of the sugar is what we call the _ ____________ _____.

N GLYCOSIDIC BOND.

NUCLEIC ACID - TRUE OR FALSE: So on the other hand the phosphate group is attached to the five prime carbon of the sugar forming a covalent bond. So this time it is a covalent bond that would form between a phosphate group and the sugar.

TRUE

So during the assembly of a nucleic acid strand the hydroxyl group attached to the three prime carbon of the sugar of one nucleotide becomes linked by what we call now an 1.____ ____to the phosphate group attached to the pipe prime carbon of the next nucleotide as you would see in the image. So the nucleotides of the nucleic acids are then connected by the sugar phosphate linkages and are described as the three prime to five prime 2._______________ ____ since the phosphate atom is esterified to two oxygen atoms from each adjoining sugar.

1. ester bonds 2. phosphodiester bonds

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF NITROGENOUS BASES -2

➔ PYRIMIDINES ➔ PURINES

➔ PYRIMIDINES or PURINES? ◆ smaller molecules consisting of a single ring ◆ include the bases adenine and guanine ● can be found both in RNA and DNA.

PYRIMIDINES

➔ PYRIMIDINES or PURINES? ◆ Larger molecules with two rings ◆ include cytosine, uracil and thymine ● Cytosine is found in both RNA and DNA while the uracil is only found in RNA and it is replaced by thymine in DNA.

PURINES

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - TRUE OR FALSE: Nucleotides do NOT ONLY function as building blocks of nucleic acids

TRUE

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - TRUE OR FALSE: ➢ Most of the energy used by the plants is NOT derived from the nucleotide adenosine triphosphate or the ATP.

FALSE Ans: plants are derived from ATP

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - TRUE OR FALSE: So the structure of the ATP enables them to carry a chemical energy in their easily "hydrolyzed phospho and hydride bonds" which is formed between each of the three phosphate groups.

TRUE

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - ATP consists of three phosphate groups and each three phosphate groups are linked together by what we call __________ and ________bonds.

phospho and hydride bonds.

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - TRUE OR FALSE: When one phosphate group is removed by the process of hydrolysis of this phospho and hydride bond so the energy is NOT RELEASED and then the ADP is then converted into adenosine diphosphate or called the ADP.

FALSE Ans: When one phosphate group is removed by the process of hydrolysis of this phospho and hydride bond so the energy is RELEASED and then the ADP is then converted into adenosine diphosphate or called the ADP.

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - TRUE OR FALSE: ➢ Another function of the nucleotide is that it is important to plant metabolism is that they have the ability to combine with other groups to form what we now call a COENZYME.

TRUE

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - Another function of the nucleotide is that it is important to plant metabolism is that they have the ability to combine with other groups to form what we now call a _________.

COENZYME

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - TRUE OR FALSE: ○ So for example the coenzyme A and this coenzyme A is not at fault for its role in the synthesis and oxidation of fatty acids and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle. They form a reactive THIOESTER BOND between the sulfur atom and acetate. So if the thioester bond is hydrolyzed it releases large amounts of Gibbs free energy making the acetate molecule more readily transferred to another molecule.

TRUE

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - TRUE OR FALSE: ➢ Another function of the nucleotide is that it can also be used for the SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION which is evident by the activity of cyclic adenosine monophosphate or the cAMP.

TRUE

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - ➢ Another function of the nucleotide is that it can also be used for the signal transduction which is evident by the activity of __________________________or the cAMP.

cyclic adenosine monophosphate or the cAMP.

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - TRUE OR FALSE: the cAMP is a derivative of ATP that is being used for intracellular signal transduction like transferring into cells and the effects of certain hormones that CANNOT pass through the plasmalemma.

TRUE

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - TRUE OR FALSE: Also cAMP binds to and would regulate the function of ion channels that are found in the membrane of the cell

TRUE

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES - the cAMP is a derivative of ATP that is being used for _______________________________ (ist) like transferring into cells and the effects of certain hormones that CANNOT pass through the plasmalemma.

intracellular signal transduction

The two nucleic acids present in the plants are the ___ and ____.

DNA and the RNA

LEC - LESSON 1 AND 2 Flashcards

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