Lecture 1+2 AI generated

Question 1

What does the brainstem consist of, its role and explain the reward circuit.

Answer 1

Consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla.

The brainstem is involved in reward processing, processing gut signals, and control of heart and breathing rate (autonomic functions). It receives and processes multiple GI signals.

The sustantia nigra and the VTA contain dopamine neurons: reward circuit.

Question 2

Define the function of the Cerebellum.

Answer 2

The Cerebellum (small brain) regulates motor control, cognitive functions, and plays a role in feeding control.

Question 3

How is the forebrain structured, and what are its components?

Answer 3

The forebrain consists of the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus). It is divided into 5 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and limbic.

Question 4

What are the functions of the frontal lobe in the brain?

Answer 4

The frontal lobe is responsible for stimulus evaluation, decision making, controlling movement, and planning behavior. It includes subparts like the orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex.

Question 5

Describe the functions of the parietal lobe in the brain.

Answer 5

The parietal lobe is involved in somatosensory processing, visual processing, and controlling bodily sensations.

Question 6

Explain the role of the occipital lobe in the brain.

Answer 6

The occipital lobe is responsible for visual processing and is located at the back of the head.

Question 7

Explain the role of the temporal lobe in the brain.

Answer 7

The temporal lobe is involved in auditory processing, visual processing and the hippocampus.

Question 8

What are the basic subdivisions of the human nervous system?

Answer 8

The basic subdivisions of the human nervous system include the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Question 9

How does the brain strive to automate responses and minimize cognitive interference?

Answer 9

The brain automates responses and minimizes cognitive interference by processing information efficiently and creating neural pathways for routine actions.

Question 10

Describe the Circle of Willis and its function in the brain.

Answer 10

The Circle of Willis is a network of blood vessels in the brain that ensures blood supply to the brain. It helps maintain blood flow even if there is an obstruction in one vessel. Blood brings oxygen, glucose and hormones to the brain.

Question 11

Describe the limbic system its functions.

Answer 11

The limbic system is the 5th lobe; a subcortical area involved in emotion, learning, motivation, and autonomic functions.

Question 12

What does the limbic system consist of?

Answer 12

Key components include the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus, basal ganglia, orbitofrontal cortex and the piriform cortex (smell).

Question 13

What is the insula and its functions? Also explain how is serves as key connecting area.

Answer 13

The insula is a limbic, hidden area in the brain (in the lateral sulcus, concealed by the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes) involved in emotion, interception, and homeostasis. The anterior insula is linked to subjective feelings (olfactory, gustatory and limbic function), while the posterior insula is involved in bodily sensations like pain, visceral sensations and gastric distension.

The insula also serves as a key connecting area with the S2, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex and encodes the somatosensory and olfactory properties of food.

Question 14

Define the hippocampus and its role.

Answer 14

The hippocampus, resembling a seahorse, is crucial for memory formation, associations, and spatial navigation. Damage to the hippocampus can lead to difficulties in forming new memories.

Linked to motivation, energy balance, BOLD signal varies with hunger and obesity

Question 15

How is the thalamus important in the brain?

Answer 15

The thalamus acts as a sensory relay system and is involved in homeostasis, regulating energy intake, hunger, and thirst. It integrates neural and hormonal signals**, responding to glucose levels and hormones like insulin, leptin, ghrelin, PYY, CCK and GLP-1.

Question 16

Describe the amygdala and its functions.

Answer 16

The amygdala (left and right, in temporal lobe), meaning almond, controls autonomic, emotional, and sexual behaviour and is activated by fear and arousal. It plays a key role in emotional learning, and assigning value to sensory stimuli like food cues (from sensory cortex).

Question 17

Describe the role of the amygdala response to gustatory and visual food cues in humans.

Answer 17

The amygdala consistently responds to gustatory and visual food cues in humans. Without an intact amygdala, the taste cortex cannot encode the palatability of food cues.

Question 18

Define the basal ganglia and its functions.

Answer 18

The basal ganglia are involved in motor control and reward processing. They consist of different areas, including the striatum (putamen + pallidum + caudate). There is a dorsal and ventral (Nucleus Accumbens; hedonic hotspot) striatum.

Question 19

How is the nervous system divided, and what are its major subdivisions? And explain sensory perceptions in the peripheral nervous system.

Answer 19

The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (everything outside the CNS). The autonomic nervous system includes the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems, along with the enteric nervous system.

In the peripheral nervous system we have sensory perceptions for nutrient sensing (cephalic phase responses) involving sensory nerves in the head and the Vagus nerve (CN X).

Question 20

Describe the pathway of vision from the sensory organs to the brain and how this can be measured.

Answer 20

Vision travels through Cranial nerve II to the Thalamic nuclei, then to the primary and secondary visual cortex in the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes. Visual processing, such as attention, is modulated by the frontal cortex (top-down control).

Looking at food: the visual cortex –> posterior insula –> amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex. Measure with eye tracking and modulators like hunger, BMI and attention.

Question 21

Explain the unique features of the olfactory pathway compared to other sensory systems.

Answer 21

The olfactory pathway lacks a thalamic relay (to transfer peripheral input into the brain), projects ipsilaterally (e.g. left nostril –> left hemisphere; others senses contralaterally), and has a more dispersed spatial organization. It includes a set of structures (some subcortical) in the primary olfactory cortex, unlike other senses (secondary sensory cortex includes cortical area immediately adjacent to the primary sensory cortex)

Question 22

What is the starting point of the olfactory sensory pathway, and how does it function?

Answer 22

The olfactory sensory pathway begins with olfactory receptor cells in the olfactory mucosa at the roof of the nasal cavity. Volatile molecules activate receptors to initiate the olfactory process.

Question 23

Describe the pathway of the olfactory signal in the brain.

Answer 23

The olfactory signal travels via the olfactory nerve to the mitral cells in the olfactory bulb, then to the olfactory tract, piriform cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex.

Question 24

What are the primary qualities of taste perception?

Answer 24

The primary qualities of taste perception are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savoury).

Question 25

How does gustation work in identifying substances?

Answer 25

Gustation on the tongue is used to identify substances that promote or disrupt homeostasis.

Question 26

Define the trigeminal sense and its functions.

Answer 26

The trigeminal system is responsible for various sensations like burning, stinging, touch, pressure, and temperature, in addition to chemosensory perception.

Question 27

Describe the role of the Vagus nerve in flavor perception.

Answer 27

The Vagus nerve innervates the mouth, throat, GI tract, liver, and kidneys, forming the Gut-brain highway for flavor perception.

Question 28

What is the function of white matter in the brain?

Answer 28

White matter in the brain, which appears white due to myelin, facilitates communication between different brain regions.

Question 29

Explain the terms medial, lateral, dorsolateral, ventral, caudal, and rostral in brain anatomy.

Answer 29

Medial means near the midline, lateral is near the outer edge, dorsolateral/superior means up, ventral/inferior means down, caudal/posterior means back, and rostral/anterior means front.

Question 30

Describe the different brain nomenclature options mentioned in the content.

Answer 30

The brain nomenclature options include Brodmann areas classified by Korbinian Bordmann, anatomical labels (e.g., inferior frontal gyrus), anatomical locations (e.g., lateral prefrontal cortex), and functional names (e.g., gustatory cortex).

Question 31

Define the Talairach space and the MNI space in relation to brain mapping.

Answer 31

The Talairach space is a reference system based on the brain of one individual, while the MNI space brain templates are based on average anatomical MRI scans of healthy right-handed volunteers.

Question 32

How do the radiological and neurological conventions differ in brain imaging?

Answer 32

In the radiological convention, the view is from the feet looking upward, where the right side appears as the left side. In the neurological convention, the view is from the head looking downward, maintaining the right side as the right side.

Question 33

Describe the impact of gender on brain morphology and function as discussed in the content.

Answer 33

Gender influences brain morphology and function, with significant effects from sex hormones during brain development. Studies show menstrual cycle and sex hormones affect food reward responses.

Question 34

What are some challenges associated with studying the effects of diet on the brain according to the content?

Answer 34

Challenges include determining specific effects of single nutrients, establishing causality, and addressing the impact of diets high in trans-fat on brain volume and cognitive performance in the elderly.

Question 35

Define the purpose of using group-specific MNI templates or probability atlases in brain mapping.

Answer 35

Group-specific MNI templates or probability atlases are used to account for interindividual variation in brain structures, such as the size of sulci and gyri, ensuring more accurate brain mapping results.