LECTURE Flashcards
(120 cards)
1
Q
Approximately, how old is the Earth?
A
Approximately 4.54 billion years old.
2
Q
What is the great unifying theory of Biology?
A
Evolution
3
Q
What is the great unifying theory of Geology?
A
Plate Tectonics
4
Q
Define Lithosphere.
A
The rigid outer layer of the Earth, composed of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.
5
Q
What are the characteristics of the Lithosphere?
A
- Solid
- Brittle
- Divided into tectonic plates
6
Q
Define Asthenosphere.
A
The partially molten, ductile layer of the upper mantle below the lithosphere.
7
Q
What are the characteristics of the Asthenosphere?
A
- Plastic
- Flows slowly
- Allows lithospheric plates to move
8
Q
Tectonics is the study of?
A
The deformation of Earth’s crust and the forces that produce it.
9
Q
What is uniformitarianism?
A
The principle that the present is the key to the past.
10
Q
When was uniformitarianism first introduced into the scientific community?
A
Late 18th century and early 19th century.
11
Q
Who is the credited author of Uniformitarianism?
A
James Hutton
12
Q
What is Neptunism?
A
An outdated theory that rocks, including basalt, crystallized from a primordial global ocean.
13
Q
What is Nicholas Steno known for?
A
Principles of Stratigraphy.
14
Q
What is the principle of Superposition?
A
In an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, the oldest rocks are at the bottom and the youngest are at the top.
15
Q
What is the principle of Original Horizontality?
A
Sedimentary layers are initially deposited horizontally or nearly so.
16
Q
What is the principle of Lateral Continuity?
A
Sedimentary layers extend laterally in all directions until they thin out or are bounded by a basin edge.
17
Q
What is the principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships?
A
A geologic feature that cuts across another is younger than the feature it cuts.
18
Q
What is the principle of Inclusions?
A
Fragments of one rock unit enclosed within another rock unit are older than the rock unit containing the inclusions.
19
Q
How do unconformities form?
A
Gaps in the geologic record due to erosion or non-deposition.
20
Q
What are the types of unconformities?
A
- Disconformity
- Angular Unconformity
- Nonconformity
21
Q
Define Hypothesis.
A
A tentative explanation that can be tested.
22
Q
Define Theory.
A
A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, supported by a large body of evidence.
23
Q
Define Law.
A
A descriptive statement or equation that reliably predicts events under certain conditions.
24
Q
What does it mean to say that Earth is a system?
A
It means that Earth is composed of interacting components and processes that exchange energy and matter.
25
Fill in the blank: The limestone in the photo likely formed in a shallow marine environment due to the accumulation of __________.
calcium carbonate
26
What is the rock cycle?
Basic definition of the three rock types.
27
Define Igneous rock.
Formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
28
Define Sedimentary rock.
Formed from the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of sediment.
29
Define Metamorphic rock.
Formed from the alteration of pre-existing rocks by heat, pressure, or chemically active fluids.
30
Where do intrusive Igneous rocks cool and crystallize?
Underground
31
Where do extrusive Igneous rocks cool and crystallize?
At the surface
32
Define Weathering.
The breakdown of rocks in place.
33
Define Erosion.
The transport of weathered material by agents like water, wind, or ice.
34
What is Bedding?
Layering in sedimentary rocks.
35
Define Diagenesis.
Physical and chemical changes occurring to sediment after deposition, during and after lithification, at relatively low temperatures and pressures.
36
What is Contact metamorphism?
Occurs locally when rock is heated by an igneous intrusion.
37
What is Regional metamorphism?
Occurs over a large area, typically due to mountain-building processes.
38
Define Sediment.
Loose, solid particles that can be transported and deposited.
39
What is Lithification?
The processes that convert sediment into sedimentary rock.
40
Who is Georges Cuvier?
An important figure in paleontology and catastrophism.
41
Who is Charles Lyell?
A key proponent of uniformitarianism.
42
Define Stratigraphy.
The study of rock layers (strata) and their relationships.
43
What is Numerical age dating?
Provides specific ages in years (e.g., radiometric dating).
44
What is Relative age dating?
Determines the order of events without specific ages (e.g., using principles of stratigraphy).
45
What is Biostratigraphy?
Using fossils to date and correlate rock layers.
46
What is Lithostratigraphy?
Correlating rock units based on their lithological (rock type) characteristics.
47
What is Sequence stratigraphy?
Studying sedimentary rocks within a time-stratigraphic framework related to sea-level changes.
48
Define Formation.
A basic lithostratigraphic unit that is distinct and mappable.
49
Define Depositional sequence.
A relatively continuous succession of genetically related strata bounded by unconformities.
50
What is biotic succession?
The principle that fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order.
51
What is an index fossil?
A fossil that is widespread, abundant, and short-lived, useful for dating and correlating strata.
52
What is a guide fossil?
Similar to an index fossil, but may have a longer range; still useful for correlation.
53
Define Chemostratigraphy.
Using variations in the chemical composition of rocks to correlate strata.
54
What is a seismic reflection profile?
A technique that uses seismic waves to image subsurface geological structures.
55
What is a chronostratigraphic unit?
A rock unit representing a specific interval of geologic time.
56
The chronostratigraphic equivalent of the Period is known as a __________.
System
57
What is the basic structure of the geologic time scale?
Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs (largest to smallest).
58
Can eustatic sea-level changes produce disconformities?
Yes
59
Based on the earliest found fossil, life appeared on Earth approximately __________ years ago.
3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago
60
Complex multicellular organisms appeared on Earth __________ years ago.
Around 541 million years ago
61
How do you write out the genus and species of an organism?
Genus capitalized and italicized, species lowercase and italicized (e.g., Homo sapiens)
62
The fundamental unit used for classifying organisms, using the Linnaean classification scheme, is called the __________.
Species
63
What genus do humans belong to?
Homo
64
List the subdivisions of the Linnaean classification system starting with Domain.
* Domain
* Kingdom
* Phylum
* Class
* Order
* Family
* Genus
* Species
65
Which cells are more complex and have organelles?
Eukaryote
66
To what domain do humans belong?
Eukarya
67
What kind of cells are the archaebacteria?
Prokaryotic
68
How do archaebacteria metabolize?
Diverse metabolisms, including chemosynthesis
69
Are archaebacteria considered primitive or advanced?
Considered distinct from other bacteria, not necessarily simply 'primitive' or 'advanced'
70
To what domain are the oldest fossils found?
Bacteria and Archaea
71
Define Body fossils.
Remains of an organism's body (e.g., bones, shells, leaves)
72
Define Trace fossils.
Evidence of an organism's activity (e.g., footprints, burrows, coprolites)
73
What is the study of the processes leading to fossilization?
Taphonomy
74
How does one best become a fossil?
* Hard parts are more easily preserved than soft parts
* Rapid burial is better than slow burial
* Fine-grained sediment often provides better preservation detail than coarse-grained sediment
75
Define Biological species concept.
Defines species based on reproductive isolation (ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring).
76
Define Morphological species concept.
Defines species based on physical characteristics.
77
What is microevolution?
Changes in allele frequencies within a population over relatively short periods.
78
What is macroevolution?
Large-scale evolutionary changes above the species level, such as the origin of new species.
79
Define Ontogenetic change.
Changes an organism undergoes during its individual development from zygote to adult.
80
What is the fixity of species?
The outdated idea that species are unchanging.
81
When was biological evolution widely accepted by the scientific community?
After the publication of Darwin's 'On the Origin of Species'.
82
What book did Darwin write?
'On the Origin of Species'
83
Who is Jean-Baptiste Lamarck?
Proposed the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics.
84
Who is Alfred Russel Wallace?
Independently conceived of the theory of natural selection.
85
Define Adaptation.
An inherited trait that enhances an organism's survival and reproduction in its environment.
86
What is Genetic mutation?
A change in the DNA sequence, which can create new alleles.
87
What is Natural selection?
The process by which individuals with advantageous heritable traits survive and reproduce more successfully.
88
Define Analogous structures.
Structures in different species that have similar functions but evolved independently.
89
Define Homologous structures.
Structures in different species that have a common evolutionary origin.
90
Define Vestigial structures.
Structures in an organism that have lost their original function through evolution.
91
Who proposed natural selection as the mechanism for biologic evolution?
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
92
Who carried out experiments on garden peas that demonstrated how changes in organisms arise?
Gregor Mendel
93
How are variations in a population related to survival and adaptation?
Variations provide the raw material for natural selection.
94
Define Genotype.
The genetic makeup of an organism.
95
Define Phenotype.
The observable physical and behavioral characteristics of an organism.
96
What is Allopatric speciation?
Speciation that occurs when populations are geographically separated.
97
What is Sympatric speciation?
Speciation that occurs within the same geographic area.
98
What is Parapatric speciation?
Speciation that occurs when populations are partially separated.
99
Define Anagenesis.
Gradual evolutionary change within a single lineage over time.
100
What is Punctuated equilibrium?
A pattern of evolution characterized by long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid evolutionary change.
101
What is the difference between a phylogenetic tree and a cladogram?
* Phylogenetic tree: Depicts evolutionary relationships with inferred change.
* Cladogram: Based on shared derived characters without showing change.
102
Define Convergent evolution.
The independent evolution of similar traits in unrelated organisms.
103
Define Divergent evolution.
The evolution of different traits in related organisms.
104
What is a Monophyletic group?
A group of organisms that includes a common ancestor and all of its descendants.
105
What is Adaptive radiation?
evolution of an animal or plant group into a wide variety of types adapted to specialized modes of life.
106
Define Copes law.
The tendency for body size to increase over evolutionary time within a lineage.
107
Under normal conditions does extinction occur?
Yes, background extinction is a normal process.
108
During mass extinctions do organisms go extinct in a short or long amount of time?
In a relatively short amount of time.
109
Is selective breeding of dogs and cats an example of natural selection?
No, it is an example of artificial selection.
110
Can reproductive isolation lead to speciation?
Yes, reproductive isolation is a key factor.
111
Define Genetic drift.
Random fluctuations in allele frequencies within a population.
112
What are shared derived characters?
Shared characteristics are traits that two or more species have in common, often due to a shared ancestor.
113
Is extinction a process that occurs in a short or long amount of time?
In a relatively short amount of time, geologically speaking.
114
Can reproductive isolation lead to speciation?
Yes, reproductive isolation is a key factor in speciation, as it prevents gene flow between populations.
115
What is genetic drift?
Random fluctuations in allele frequencies within a population, especially in small populations.
116
What are shared derived characters, or synapomorphies, preferred for?
Reconstructing evolutionary relationships.
117
Why are synapomorphies significant in evolutionary biology?
They are unique to a monophyletic group and indicate that the organisms in that group inherited the character from their most recent common ancestor.
118
What do shared derived characters provide evidence for?
Common ancestry.
119
What are autapomorphies?
Unique derived characters found in only one taxon.
120
What are homoplasies?
the development of organs or other bodily structures within different species, which resemble each other and have the same functions, but did not have a common
