Lecture #2

Question 1

Define science

Answer 1

A process of gaining knowledge about the natural world

Question 2

What is the scientific method?

Answer 2

The use of experiments and observations to explain something in nature

Question 3

Define hypothesis

Answer 3

Proposed (tentative) explanation of a phenomenon that can be tested (normally based on a prediction that follows from the hypothesis)

Question 4

What is a theory?

Answer 4

Widely accepted and tested (confirmed) explanation for a phenomena

Question 5

What is a law?

Answer 5

Description of how behaves under certain conditions (often mathematical formula, rare in natural sciences)

Question 6

What fields of study are considered natural sciences?

Answer 6

Physics, geology, biology, and chemistry

Question 7

Who is associated with Holism?
*He also co-developed island biogeography

Answer 7

Wilson

Question 8

What is Holism?

Answer 8

Emphasizes a ‘complex systems’ approach to science that focuses on a ‘top-down’ approach by studying higher organizational levels: “The whole is more than the sum of its parts”

Question 9

Define emergence

Answer 9

Properties of groups that can’t be entirely explained by their individual components (across scales)

Question 10

Who is associated with Reductionism?
“Explain all biology in terms of physics and chemistry”

Answer 10

Crick

Question 11

What is reductionism?

Answer 11

Describes systems by dividing them into smaller units to understand them through their elemental properties; bottom-up approach: “the whole is simply the sum of it’s parts”

Question 12

What is normative science?

Answer 12

Information is developed or interpreted on an assumed, usually insinuated, preference for a particular outcome or policy; applied science; produces facts and measurements

Question 13

What is a descriptive science?

Answer 13

Studying nature for the sake of understanding how nature worlds without an a priori application; basic science

Question 14

___ reasoning is common in the basic sciences; starts with the theory -> hypothesis -> observation -> confirmation

Answer 14

Deductive

Question 15

___ reasoning is common in the applied sciences; starts with an observation -> pattern -> hypothesis -> theory
**Natural sciences

Answer 15

Inductive

Question 16

Define deductive reasoning

Answer 16

Building up to a specific principle through a chain of increasingly narrow statements

Question 17

Define inductive reasoning

Answer 17

Proves a general principle by highlighting a group of specific events, trends, or observations

Question 18

Who is associated with falsification of hypothesis?

Answer 18

Popper

Question 19

How is a single hypothesis disproved?

Answer 19

By confirmation of data; be able to test

Question 20

Who is associated with the following key phrase: paradigms, normal science, scientific revolutions

Answer 20

Kuhn

Question 21

What hypothesis starts with 1 theory until evidence proves otherwise?

Answer 21

Single hypothesis

Question 22

Republic of science is associated with who?

Answer 22

Polanyi

Question 23

What did Polanyi believe when it comes to studying science?

Answer 23

Multiple views of the world allowed according to the different opinions of scientists; confrontation between these views and data judged on: 1) plausibility 2) value 3) interest

Question 24

The confrontation of multiple hypotheses with data as an arbitrator (scientific research program) is associated with who?

Answer 24

Lakatos

Question 25

Who had already thought of Lakatos' theory?

Answer 25

Chamberlin

Question 26

Hypothesis testing is usually what type of reasoning?

Answer 26

Inductive

Question 27

What are Multiple Working Hypotheses (MWHs)? And who's associated with it?

Answer 27

Involves the development, prior to research, of several hypotheses that might explain the phenomenon we want to study -- Chamberlin

Question 28

What are 3 key methods for testing ideas in natural sciences?

Answer 28

1. Manipulative experiments 2. Natural experiments 3. Observational (only) study

Question 29

What are some examples of studies that are classified as observational (only) studies?

Answer 29

Animals in their natural environment; stars, planets & astronomical phenomena; erosion or natural movement of land; human behaviours or screening humans for a disease

Question 30

What is meta-analysis?

Answer 30

Many studies are more valuable than a single study; synthesizing and combining multiple studies into 1 major study

Question 31

This person is largely considered the 'father' of modern conservation and wildlife in North America

Answer 31

Lovelock

Question 32

This type of study is based on the synthesis of results from many other studies

Answer 32

Meta-analysis

Question 33

Is the stratification of water temperatures greater in the summer than that in the winter?

Answer 33

Yes

Question 34

___ fragmented a lake in order to experiment the effects of phosphorus in freshwater lakes

Answer 34

Schindler

Question 35

What is the Winner's Curse?

Answer 35

The winner in an auction tends on average to have overpaid, especially when no participant is sure exactly how valuable the item is

Question 36

What is economic uncertainty?

Answer 36

Situation where the real long-term value of a commodity is largely unpredictable

Question 37

What is the Winner's curse phenomenon?

Answer 37

Science looks for true relationships, but there is uncertainty. ex: published articles, especially in very competitive journals, have on average exaggerated results

Question 38

Who was famous for being a negative example of the winner's curse?

Answer 38

Diederik Stapel

Question 39

"The history of science has repeatedly shown that when hypotheses are proposed it is impossible to predict which will turn out to be revolutionary and which ridiculous. The only safe approach is to let all see the light and to let all be discussed, experimented upon, vindicated or destroyed." What concept is this quote related to?

Answer 39

Horrobin's hypothesis

Question 40

What are desk rejections?

Answer 40

Manuscripts that an editor decides not to send for peer review after an initial evaluation

Question 41

How are science articles/papers self-correcting?

Answer 41

Over the long-term, incorrect ideas (or fraud) will be uncovered (often by replicated studies), paradigms rejected or revised, etc.

Question 42

The main point is to therefore understand that there is ___ in science. (In relation to papers and the processes of publication)

Answer 42

uncertainty