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Research Methods In Health > Lecture 2 (sept 13th) > Flashcards

Lecture 2 (sept 13th) Flashcards

1
Q

Study Goal vs Objective

A

Goals are just ideas, objectives are actionable and planning related

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2
Q

Theoretical framework

A

a set of established models in the published literature that can
inform the components and flows of the conceptual framework for a new research study

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3
Q

We use models in health research

A

 To organize our thoughts
 To explore determinant/health relationships in a systematic manner
 As a guide for analysis
 To identify ‘modifiable’ factors for intervention

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4
Q

Lalonde’s Model

A

Title: A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians.
Considered to be first modern government doc in Western
context to propose the health field look beyond the
biomedical health care system.

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5
Q

Lalonde model: Proposed health field

A

= human biology + environment +
lifestyle + health care organization

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6
Q

Evans and Stoddart model

A

See Tutorial 2

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7
Q

Eco-social Model/the Big picture
Individual

A

Sex, age, health, etc.

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8
Q

Eco-social Model/the Big picture Microsystem

A

Family
school
health services
peers
Church community
Neighbourhood play area

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9
Q

Exosystem

A

social welfare services
mass media
legal services
friends of family
neighbours

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10
Q

Macrosystem

A

ideologies of the culture and attitude

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11
Q

conceptual model

A

A model that a researcher sketches using boxes and arrows to illustrate the various relationships
that will

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12
Q

Study goal
Objectives
Models
Methods

A

> ideas
actionable / Plan
a framework
blueprint / instructions

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13
Q

Probability Sampling

A

Involves using selection techniques wherein the probability of selecting
each sampling unit is known

Prob (sampled) = n/N should equal 1

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14
Q

Probability Sampling Methods

A
  1. Simple random sampling
  2. Stratified random sampling
  3. Cluster sampling
  4. Multistage sampling
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15
Q

Simple Random Sampling

A

A simple random sample is a randomly selected subset of a population.
ex. 12 out of 36 people randomly
selected

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16
Q

Stratified Sampling

A

Random samples from distinct groups
> Geography (urban, rural, suburban)
> Sex (male, female, other)
Ex. 3 from each stratum
are randomly selected

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17
Q

Cluster Sampling

A

Researchers divide a population into smaller groups known as clusters. They then randomly select among these clusters to form a sample.
> Natural clusters (schools, neighbourhoods)
rather than individual units are selected
> Observation are made on all units within a
cluster
> Cluster sampling of schools
> All eligible children within each school included

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18
Q

Multistage Sampling

A

> Primary sampling units are selected
(e.g. municipalities)
Secondary units selected within
primary units (e.g. individuals)
May have more levels ex:
> Secondary units: city blocks
> Tertiary units: individuals

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19
Q

Other Sampling Techniques : Nonprobability-based sample

A

Convenience Sample:
Purposive sampling:

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20
Q

Convenience Sample:

A

Selection from a nonprobability-based
source population due to ease of access to those individuals,
schools, workplaces, organizations, or communities
> Use with caution
> Often systematically different from the target and source
populations they are intended to represent

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21
Q

Purposive sampling:

A

Recruitment of the participants for a
qualitative study based on the special insights they can provide
(Nov. 15)

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22
Q

Key informants

A

Are individuals selected to participate in a
qualitative study because they have expertise relevant to the
study question
Other Sampling Techniques

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23
Q

Errors Associated with Sampling

A

> Does the sample represent the target
population?
External validity
Sampling bias

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24
Q

> Don’t confuse with selection bias (when
healthier or educated people are more likely to
volunteer for research, September 27)

A
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25
Ethical issues in sampling Vulnerable Populations
Definition: Those who might have limited ability to make an autonomous decision about volunteering to participate in a research study (more next class on Wednesday)
26
Vulnerable Populations examples
Young children Some individuals with serious health issues People in prison and some other socially marginalized populations Limited ability to make an independent decision about volunteering because of other reasons
27
Vulnerable populations
 Should not be selected unless absolutely necessary  At the same time, systematically exclusion is also unethical  Their health issues should be studied  Extra consideration of the potential risks of research to participants (stricter ethical considerations)
28
The Importance of Sample Size
We want to recruit just the right number of participants  Recruiting too many participants wastes resources  Recruiting too few participants makes the study invalid The desired sample size (the number of observations in a data set) for a quantitative study is based on statistical estimations about how many data points are required in order to answer the study question with a specified level of certainty
29
Proper Sample Size can be Calculated Based on
The effect estimate of exposure on the outcome: The amount of errors we can accept Variation of the outcome in the population
30
The effect estimate of exposure on the outcome:
For larger effect smaller sample is required
31
The amount of euro(s) we can accept
For smaller desired error larger sample is required
32
Variation of the outcome in the population
Complex, largest when prevalence is 50%
33
Type 2 error (β)
False negative You're not pregnant when you actually are.
33
Type one error (α)
False positive example : you're pregnant and you're actually not
34
Type 1 error (α) occurs when
A study population yields a statistically-significant test result even though a significant difference or association does not actually exist in the source population
35
Type 2 error (β) occurs when
A statistical test of data from research finds no significant result even though a significant difference or association actually exists in the source population
36
Amount of random α and β errors is
a function of sample size
37
(1- β) is usually referred as the
The power of the study, i.e. how much the study is able to detect a true relationship, can be calculated post hoc (after the study is complete
38
Data Collection in Health Often (NOT ALWAYS) is conducted by
interviewing (either self or by an interviewers) participants via questionnaires or survey instrument
39
Other methods of Data Collection in Health:
 Direct measurement of physical functioning (measurement of height, weight, blood pressure)  Blood work (measurement of hormones, sugar)  Sampling other tissues  Imaging (X-ray, CT scan, MRI)
40
Interview is ...
...the process of verbally asking a participant questions and recording that person’s responses Trained interviewers record the responses, and they can ensure the accuracy and completeness of each questionnaire Interviews may require major time commitments from study personnel
41
Self-administered survey
is a questionnaire form that participants complete by themselves, using either a paper-and-pencil version or online
42
In-depth Interview for Qualitative Studies
Spending 1 or 2 hours interviewing a key informant (not sampled) using open-ended questions > semi-structured interview >Probing
43
In a semi-structured interview
the interviewer starts with a list of open-ended questions that will be asked of each participant, but these questions or lists of topics are merely starting points for eliciting responses from participant
44
Probing
Is an interviewing technique that prompts an interviewee to provide a more complete or specific response Used in qualitative studies specifically interviews
45
Interviewers can also record their observations
of the body language and other nonverbal communication conveyed by interviewee
46
Interview pros and cons
Pros: we can train interviewers to ensure the accuracy and completeness of each questionnaire Cons: may require major time commitments, expensive
47
Self-administered survey pros and cons
Pros: cost- and time-efficient Possibly of approaching a large number of participants The best way to get honest answers to sensitive questions Cons: Problematic for low literacy populations, and those who have limited Internet access or be unfamiliar with computers page 184 of the textbook
48
Training Interviewers
> Standard protocols will be followed to ensure the interview process is the same for all study participants > All interviewers should undergo role-specific training and have an opportunity to practice their interview skills, pilot testing, quality control to avoid interviewer bias
49
Interviewer bias
Occurs when interviewers systematically question cases and controls or exposed and unexposed members of a study population differently, such as probing only individuals they believe to have the disease or exposure of interest for more information
50
Uniformity
is easiest to accomplish when all interviewers are provided with the tools they need to follow a standardized set of procedures
51
Questionnaire
A series of questions used as a tool for systematically gathering data from study participants
52
Systematically Gathering Data for Focused and specific content steps (3)
1) List the topics that the survey instrument must cover Theoretical frameworks can inform the diversity of questions that may be relevant to include in the survey instrument 2) The first set of questionnaire items typically are ones that enable the researcher to confirm that participants meet the eligibility criteria for the study, exclude ineligible people 3) Several questions may be required in order to accurately assign participants to key exposure and disease categories
53
Types of questions
Closed-ended questions Open-ended questions
54
Open-ended questions
(also called free response questions) allow an unlimited number of possible response
55
Closed-ended questions
allow a limited number of possible responses > Date and time questions > Numeric questions > Categorical > Ranked (ordinal) categorical answers have an inherent order > Unordered (nominal) categorical answers do not have any built-in order > Paired comparisons
56
Practical Considerations for questionnaires
1) Order of questions 2) Getting the correct answer 3) Data recording method 4) Layout and formatting 5) Back translation
57
1) Order of questions
> It is better to start with easy or at least general questions before moving to more difficult or sensitive questions > It is often best to group similar questions with similar response types, so that they are asked consecutively
58
2) Getting the correct answer
 Sometimes it is better to mix up such questions to prevent habituation, an error that occurs when participants become so accustomed to giving a particular response (like “agree... agree... agree...”) that they continue to reply with the same response even when that does not match their true perspectives  Survey developers must carefully consider how previous questions could taint the answers to later ones
59

Research Methods In Health (13 decks)

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