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Intro to Neuro: Exam 1 > Lecture 3 > Flashcards

Lecture 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two main subdivisions of the nervous system?

A
  • The Central Nervous System.

- The Peripheral Nervous System.

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2
Q

The central nervous system is composed of what?

A

The brain and the spinal cord.

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3
Q

The peripheral nervous system is composed of what?

A

All of the nerves in the body.

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4
Q

Cerebrum

A
  • This is the largest part of the human brain.
  • It is associated with higher order functioning, including the control of voluntary behavior. Thinking, perceiving, planning, and understanding language all lie within the cerebrum’s control.
  • The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres — the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere.
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5
Q

Corpus Callosum

A
  • A bundle of fibers that bridge the right and left hemispheres together.
  • The two hemispheres communicate with one another across the corpus callosum.
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6
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A
  • It covers the outermost layer of the cerebrum.
  • Because of its gray color, the cerebral cortex is often referred to as gray matter.
  • The wrinkled appearance of the human brain also can be attributed to characteristics of the cerebral cortex.
  • More than two-thirds of this layer is folded into grooves.
  • The grooves increase the brain’s surface area, allowing for inclusion of many more neurons.
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7
Q

The Frontal Lobe

A

It is responsible for initiating and coordinating motor movements; higher cognitive skills, such as problem solving, thinking, planning, and organizing; and for many aspects of personality and emotional makeup.

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8
Q

The Parietal Lobe

A
  • It is involved with sensory processes, attention, and language.
  • Damage to the right side of the parietal lobe can result in difficulty navigating spaces, even familiar ones.
  • If the left side is injured, the ability to understand spoken and/or written language may be impaired.
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9
Q

The Occipital Lobe

A

It helps process visual information, including recognition of shapes and colors.

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10
Q

The Temporal Lobe

A
  • It helps process auditory information and integrate information from the other senses.
  • Neuroscientists also believe that the temporal lobe has a role to play in short-term memory through its hippocampal formation, and in learned emotional responses through its amygdala.
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11
Q

What “lobes” make up the forebrain?

A
  1. Frontal Lobe
  2. Parietal Lobe
  3. Occipital Lobe
  4. Temporal Lobe
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12
Q

Aside from the “lobes,” what other parts make up the forebrain?

A

Other key parts of the forebrain include:

  • The basal ganglia.
  • The thalamus.
  • The hypothalamus.
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13
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A
  • It is strongly interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem, as well as several other brain areas.
  • The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions including: control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, routine behaviors or “habits” such as bruxism, eye movements, cognition, and emotion.
  • The basal ganglia’s primary function is likely to control and regulate activities of the motor and premotor cortical areas so that voluntary movements can be performed smoothly.
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14
Q

Cerebral nuclei do what?

A

Help coordinate muscle movements and reward useful behaviors.

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15
Q

What does the thalamus do?

A

Passes most sensory information on to the cerebral cortex after helping to prioritize it.

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16
Q

What does the hypothalamus do?

A

It is the control center for appetites, defensive and reproductive behaviors, and sleep-wakefulness.

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17
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A
  • The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates the functions of our internal organs such as the heart, stomach and intestines.
  • The ANS is part of the peripheral nervous system and it also controls some of the muscles within the body.
  • We are often unaware of the ANS because it functions involuntary and reflexively.
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18
Q

The autonomic nervous system is divided into what two parts?

A
  • The sympathetic nervous system.

- The parasympathetic nervous system.

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19
Q

The Sympathetic Nervous System

A

Mobilizes energy and resources during times of stress and arousal.

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20
Q

The Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

Conserves energy and resources during relaxed states, including sleep.

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21
Q

The midbrain is divided into what two parts?

A
  1. Tegmentum

2. Tectum

22
Q

Pineal Body

A
  • (Also referred to as the pineal gland).
  • Is a small endocrine gland.
  • It produces melatonin, a serotonin derived hormone, which affects the modulation of sleep/wake patterns in both seasonal and circadian rhythms.
  • It is located near to the center of the brain between the two hemispheres, tucked in a groove where the two rounded thalamic bodies join.
23
Q

Pituitary Gland

A
  • In vertebrate anatomy, the pituitary gland is an endocrine gland.
  • It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain.
  • Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control the following body processes:
  • Growth
  • Blood pressure
  • Some aspects of pregnancy and childbirth including stimulation of uterine contractions during childbirth.
  • Breast milk production
  • Sex organ functions in both males and females.
  • Thyroid gland function.
  • The conversion of food into energy (metabolism).
  • Water and osmolarity regulation in the body.
  • Water balance via the control of reabsorption of water by the kidneys.
  • Temperature regulation.
  • Pain relief.
  • Sleeping patterns (pineal gland).
24
Q

The brain stem is separated into what three parts?

A
  1. The midbrain.
  2. The pons.
  3. The medulla.
25
Q

Tegmentum

A

It is a multisynaptic network of neurons that is involved in many unconscious homeostatic and reflexive pathways.

26
Q

Tectum

A

Is responsible for auditory and visual reflexes.

27
Q

The tectum consists of what two parts?

A
  1. Superior Colliculus

2. Inferior Colliculus

28
Q

Superior Colliculus

A

Involved in preliminary visual processing and control of eye movements.

29
Q

Inferior Colliculus

A

Involved in auditory processing.

30
Q

Pons

A
  • The pons contains nuclei that relay signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum.
  • Along with nuclei that deal primarily with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture.
  • Within the pons is the pneumotaxic center, a nucleus that regulates the change from inhalation to exhalation.
  • The pons is implicated in sleep paralysis, and also plays a role in generating dreams.
31
Q

Medulla

A
  • Helps regulate breathing, heart and blood vessel function, digestion, sneezing, and swallowing.
  • This part of the brain is a center for respiration and circulation.
  • Sensory and motor neurons (nerve cells) from the forebrain and midbrain travel through the medulla.
32
Q

Blindsight

A

The ability of people who are cortically blind due to lesions in their striate cortex, also known as primary visual cortex or V1, to respond to visual stimuli that they do not consciously see.

33
Q

Amygdala

A
  • The amygdala forms part of the limbic system.
  • It is shown to play a key role in the processing of emotions.
  • It is linked to both fear responses and pleasure.
  • Stimulating the amygdala appears to increase both sexual and aggressive behavior.
  • Amygdala volume correlates positively with both the size (the number of contacts a person has) and the complexity (the number of different groups to which a person belongs) of social networks.
  • Individuals with larger amygdalae had larger and more complex social networks. They were also better able to make accurate social judgments about other persons’ faces.
  • It is hypothesized that larger amygdalae allow for greater emotional intelligence, enabling greater societal integration and cooperation with others.
  • Conditions such as anxiety, autism, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and phobias are suspected of being linked to abnormal functioning of the amygdala, owing to damage, developmental problems, or neurotransmitter imbalance.
34
Q

Amygdala and Sexual Orientation

A
  • Recent studies have suggested possible correlations between brain structure, including differences in hemispheric ratios and connection patterns in the amygdala, and sexual orientation.
  • Homosexual men tend to exhibit more female-like patterns in the amygdala than heterosexual males do, just as homosexual females tend to show more male-like patterns in the amygdala than heterosexual women do.
  • It was observed that amygdala connections were more widespread from the left amygdala in homosexual males, as is also found in heterosexual females.
  • Amygdala connections were more widespread from the right amygdala in homosexual females, as in heterosexual males.
35
Q

Hippocampus

A
  • It belongs to the limbic system.
  • Plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short-term memory to long-term memory and spatial navigation.
  • In Alzheimer’s disease, the hippocampus is one of the first regions of the brain to suffer damage; memory loss and disorientation are included among the early symptoms.
36
Q

During sexual behavior, what two systems work together?

A

The parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system.

37
Q

What does dorsal mean?

A

The top of something.

38
Q

The sympathetic nervous system uses what NT?

A

Norepinephrine.

39
Q

The parasympathetic nervous system uses what NT?

A

Acetylcholine.

40
Q

What is the top section of the spinal cord called?

A

Cervical.

41
Q

What are the two middle sections of the spinal cord called?

A
  1. Thoracic

2. Lumbar

42
Q

What is the bottom section of the spinal cord called?

A

Sacral.

43
Q

Cervical

A
  • The cervical nerves do the following:
  • C1 and C2 (the first two cervical nerves) control the head.
  • C3 and C4 help control the diaphragm (the sheet of muscle that stretches to the bottom of the rib cage and plays an important role in breathing and respiration).
  • C5 controls upper body muscles like the Deltoids (which form the rounded contours of the shoulders) and the Biceps (which allow flexion of the elbow and rotation of the forearm).
  • C6 controls the wrist extensors (muscles like the extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi radialis brevis, and extensor carpi ulnaris that control wrist extension and hyperextension) and also provides some innervation to the biceps.

-C7 controls the Triceps (the large muscle on the back of the arm that allows for straightening of the elbow).
C8 controls the hands.

44
Q

Thoracic

A
  • The thoracic spine refers to the upper- and middle-back. It joins the cervical spine and extends down about five inches past the bottom of the shoulder blades, where it connects with the lumbar spine.
  • The thoracic spine is made up of twelve vertebrae, labeled T1-T12. While the cervical spine is built for flexibility (e.g. turning the head) and the lumbar spine is built for power and flexibility (e.g. lifting heavy objects, touching the toes), the thoracic spine is built for stability. This stability plays an important role in holding the body upright and providing protection for the vital organs in the chest.
  • There are several features of the thoracic spine that distinguish it from the lumbar and cervical spine:
  • Limited flexibility. The rib cage is connected to each level of the thoracic spine. One rib is connected firmly on each side of each thoracic vertebra, with one pair extending from either side of T1, another pair from T2, and so on. The ribs attached to T1-T10 curve around to meet at the front of the body and attach to the chest wall, or sternum. Combined, the thoracic spine and rib cage anchoring each level of the spine from T1-T10 provide both stability and a protected space for the heart, lungs, liver and other vital organs.
45
Q

Lumbar

A
  • The lumbar spine refers to the lower back, where the spine curves inward toward the abdomen. It starts about five or six inches below the shoulder blades, and connects with the thoracic spine at the top and extends downward to the sacral spine.
  • The lumbar spine has several distinguishing characteristics:
  • The lower the vertebra is in the spinal column, the more weight it must bear. The five vertebrae of the lumbar spine (L1-L5) are the biggest unfused vertebrae in the spinal column, enabling them to support the weight of the entire torso.
  • The lumbar spine’s lowest two spinal segments, L4-L5 and L5-S1, which include the vertebrae and discs, bear the most weight and are therefore the most prone to degradation and injury.
  • The lumbar spine meets the sacrum at the lumbosacral joint (L5-S1). This joint allows for considerable rotation, so that the pelvis and hips may swing when walking and running.
46
Q

Sacral

A

?

47
Q

Dorsal Roots

A

A main bundle of nerve fibers that branches off the spinal cord and goes to other areas of the body.

  • Dorsal nerve roots are responsible for carrying signals of sensation (such as feelings of pain and temperature) from the body to the brain. The brain then processes these signals immediately, making you aware of the sensation.
  • Some important points to keep in mind about the dorsal nerve root include:
  • It controls pain and temperature sensations.
  • If severed, pinched or constricted, the signals of a dorsal nerve root will be intensified or interrupted. This can cause pain, numbness, a “pins and needles” sensation or the sensation of heat along the affected nerve.
48
Q

Ventral Roots

A
  • A type of nerve root that branches off the spinal cord, exits the spinal column and continues on its path to specific areas of the body.
  • At each level of the spinal cord, two nerve roots branch out, one to the left and one to the right. At the innermost base of each spinal nerve there are two roots, the ventral root, and the dorsal root. The ventral root is an efferent root, meaning it carries neural signals away from the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and toward the limbs and organs (PNS).
  • The ventral root is made up of motor fibers that send electrochemical signals to the body’s muscles and glands.
  • These impulses control the following:
  • Muscular contractions.
  • Hormone synthesis.
  • Gland secretion.
49
Q

Spinal Nerves

A

A mixed nerve, which carries motor, sensory, and autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the body.

50
Q

Dorsal Root Ganglion

A
  • Contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons that bring information from the periphery to the spinal cord.
  • The spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system.
51
Q

The Midbrain

A

-The midbrain consists of two pairs of small hills called colliculi. These collections of neurons play a critical role
in visual and auditory reflexes and in relaying this type of information to the thalamus.

-The midbrain also has clusters of neurons that regulate activity in widespread parts of the central nervous system and are thought to be important for reward mechanisms and mood.

52
Q

The Hindbrain

A

-The hindbrain includes the pons and the medulla oblongata, which control respiration, heart rhythms, and blood glucose levels.

-Another part of the hindbrain is the cerebellum
which, like the cerebrum, also has two hemispheres. The cerebellum’s two hemispheres help control movement and cognitive processes that require precise timing, and also play an important role in Pavlovian learning.

Intro to Neuro: Exam 1 (5 decks)

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