Lecture 3: Perception, Attention and Eye Tracking

Question 1

define perception

Answer 1

• The ability to see hear or become aware of something through senses

The neurophysiological processes including memory, by which an organism becomes aware of and interprets external stimuli

Info through senses but it’s about how you deal with that

Info through senses is often a cue for memory

Question 2

how do we perceive things

Answer 2

Info through senses but it’s about how you deal with that

Info through senses is often a cue for memory

Question 3

why are taste tests conducted

Answer 3

Marketers will normally conduct a thorough testing phase to establish how best to formulate their product.

Question 4

what occurred in Project Kansas taste test

Answer 4

– piloted a sweeter drink mixture using taste tests, surveys, & focus groups

Question 5

what were the results in Project Kansas taste test

Answer 5

• 10-12% in focus groups were unhappy about the new product being sold as Coca-Cola

Question 6

what happened when coca cola tried to pilot a new coke and when did this occur

Answer 6

April 23, 1985

Vocal, well-led, campaign against the new taste, meanwhile production of the old mixture had ceased.

o Challenging loyalty to coca-cola brand
o Biasing perception in focus group?
o Sweeter drink/formulation was so well taken – except 10-12%
o That 10-12% bit back- it wasn’t coke- its something different, not what have loyalty to
 Backlash so strong that had to reintroduce old formula
o Now have new ways of new formuations- ‘family of brands’- coke 0, diet coke, cherry coke etc

Question 7

how did coca cola create sensation transference

Answer 7

• Coca-Cola did not realise that the success of the brand came from sensation transference – tasters unconsciously add their reaction to the packaging/brand to their sensations of taste.
  o If you change it- changes peoples loyalty
  o Well known brand- likely to interfere with perception of taste (same if a perfume with smell) sensation transference
  o Adding memory of brand to what they are already experiencing

Question 8

what happened in Dubow & Childs (1998) study

Answer 8

gradually changed the taste from ‘classic’ to the ‘new’ sweeter mixture – participants generally did not notice this gradual change.

Small changes can occur to a product without anyone noticing if do it gradual enough

If done this people may have not noticed- ‘just noticeable difference’

Dubow= implemented changes which were just noticeable for a difference

Question 9

what is webbers law

Answer 9

just noticeable difference’
- ignored by coca cola

-The ability of the sensory system to detect a difference between stimuli

DI/I = K

Question 10

what are the negative changes in webebrs law

Answer 10

reductions in size; increase in price) should be small enough to be undiscernible

Question 11

what are the poritive changes in webbers law

Answer 11

improved packaging or taste) should be enough to be perceived but not too much

In marketing have to keep just below level which is a noticeable difference

Question 12

define the visual system

Answer 12

• The visual system is …. centrally implicated in learning, higher-order, cognitive-affective processes, decision making and its behavioural implementation and co-ordination. Yet, relatively little attention in marketing and consumer science is devoted to the role of such visual processes.
• Wedel & Pieters (2007)

Question 13

where is the olfacatory bulb connected to and associated with

Answer 13

associated with smell

Olfactory bulb is directly connected to the limbic system in the brain, a system linked closely to emotion
o If want to elicite emotional response to a product so thinking of the smell of the product may be useful

Question 14

when would you use the olfacatory bulb in consumer psychology

Answer 14

If want to elicite emotional response to a product so thinking of the smell of the product may be useful

Question 15

what did hertz 1998 find

Answer 15

senses evoke equally accurate memories but scents evoke more emotional ones

Question 16

what are the two main theories behind why might senses influence shopping behaviour

Answer 16

mood theory

cognition theory

either scent influences mood or our cognitions

Question 17

describe the mood theory as to why might senses influence shopping behaviour

Answer 17

Individuals react to an environment by either approaching it or avoiding it, and therefore a pleasant scent will make them more likely to approach

Approach or avoid depending on scent- ambient setting

Question 18

descudbe the cognition theory as to why might senses influence shopping behaviour

Answer 18

Individuals display greater attention to products when exposed to pleasant scents, but why is unclear

If you are a consumer you tend to approach more if you are exposed to pleasant scents

Question 19

is there any evidence for the mood/ cognitive theory of why senses may influence shopping behaviour

Answer 19

o Little evidence for mood theory, some evidence for cognitive theory (Bone and Ellen, 1999

Question 20

what are the different types of scent

Answer 20

marketer scent

product scent

ambient scent

Question 21

what is marketer scent

Answer 21

scents used as a promotional tactic

Using scent to elicite positive response

e.g. smell of baking in a home for sale; new car smell

Question 22

what is product scent

Answer 22

perfumes, air fresheners, etc.

Scent is the product- wanting to typify where that product is in the market

Question 23

what is ambient scent

Answer 23

scents present in the retail environment; introducing odours to influence behaviour

Idea that scents can be present in retail enviro- designed to influence research in some way

Question 24

what did Hirsch (1995) investigate about scent

Answer 24

scented Las Vegas casinos - 45% more sales

casinos in hotels open 24/7= potential for not amazing smells

introduced pleasant scents in gambling areas in casinos

sales went up- people more likely to go into those casinos and gamble when scent smells nice

Question 25

what did Spangenberg et al. (2005) investigate about scent

Answer 25

when scent & music congruent products more positively evaluated Using combination of scent and music  too obvious? , xmas scents and smells with xmas music

Question 26

what is the implications of Doucé et al. (2013) study

Answer 26

Shows difficulty in interpreting findings in these experiments about smell

Question 27

what pretests occurred in Doucé et al. (2013) study

Answer 27

20 people confirmed that scent was pleasant 48 people confirmed that they did not notice a scent until mentioned, i.e. the scent was not salient Just below smell threshold 36 people identified cookbooks and romantic novels as congruent with chocolate scent and least congruent were history and crime novels

Question 28

what was the field test in Doucé et al. (2013) study

Answer 28

10 days in chain bookstore | Direct observation of approach and buying behaviour (goal directed)

Question 29

what was found/ concluded in Doucé et al. (2013) study

Answer 29

A positive effect of chocolate scent on approach and buying behaviour for congruent books: Cookery books/romantic novels A negative effect of chocolate scent on approach and buying behaviour for incongruent books: Crime novels, historical BUT these effects did not carry through to total sales Whats really happening here? Whats really having an effect? Most people didn’t notice chocolate smell

Question 30

what were the goal directed behaviours in Doucé et al. (2013) study

Answer 30

Searching for a specific book Going to the cash register Asking assistants about a product upon entering the store Goals towards buying

Question 31

what were the approach behaviours in Doucé et al. (2013) study

Answer 31

* Examining multiple books * Reading book synopses Lingering in the store and chatting to store personnel Saw as positive approach behaviours which would measure

Question 32

what occurred in Krishna et al 2010 study of scent

Answer 32

o Warm scents: Vanilla, cinnamon Cool scents: Peppermint, eucalyptus Cooling packs infused with cool scents were perceived to be more effective Thought to be due to semantic congruency of olfactory and tactile cues Used peppermint VS vanilla cool packs seen as ‘more effective’cool packs sensation transcripts? Scents associated with coolness being added to a product which should be seen as cool, adds to perception and makes think more effective at being cool  Idea of congruency- meaning , positive effect

Question 33

who investigated touch

Answer 33

- McCabe et al. (2003)

Question 34

what did Mcabe et al 2003 find in their study about touch

Answer 34

o Consumers are more likely to purchase certain products such as clothing if they are able to touch the fabric Asda removed the wrapping from several brands of toilet roll so that customers could compare them Sales of their own brand increased considerably Commonly associated with fabrics demonstrates quality of fabric when allowe to touch fabric Not as well needed now due to online shopping???

Question 35

what happens in congruent sound studys

Answer 35

- Some evidence that using conguremnt sound can influence product – music influences mood Music can be used as a way of experimentally influencing mood

Question 36

what did Bruner 1990 argue about sound

Answer 36

o Argued that music can influence mood, which in turn can influence consumer behaviour If you can induce a pos mood in consumers- more likely to buy?

Question 37

what did Gorn et al 1993 conclude about sound

Answer 37

o Music can influence the evaluation of products – provided that the customer is not aware that their mood is being influenced by the music

Question 38

what did Chebat et al 2004 conclude about sound

Answer 38

o The tempo of music could be used to increase sales, provided that it was used appropriately

Question 39

define the visual system

Answer 39

- The visual system is …. centrally implicated in learning, higher-order, cognitive-affective processes, decision making and its behavioural implementation and co-ordination. Yet, relatively little attention in marketing and consumer science is devoted to the role of such visual processes. Wedel & Pieters (2007) Saying: visual system centeral to our consumer processes- so consumer psychologists must ensure they are taking this into account Little systematic research and assumptions

Question 40

what are the three gestalt laws

Answer 40

law of closure law of similarity law of proximity

Question 41

what did gestalt psychology argue

Answer 41

- Gestalt psychology argues that humans are biased towards seeing distinct forms

Question 42

what is gestalts law of closure

Answer 42

people will tend to fill in any missing information, and in the process are more likely to focus on a stimulus Argues that humans are biased towards seeing things as distinct forms- see things in a certain way- series of laws which bias us towards how we see things Closure- people tend to see things even if they aren’t there- eg seeing a triangle

Question 43

describe gestalts law of similarity

Answer 43

people will tend to group similar looking objects together Eg packaging on own brands (eg tesco) follows packaging of major brands- using memory for branding in order to co-brand

Question 44

describe gestalt law of proximity

Answer 44

objects that are close together tend to be perceived as belonging together

Question 45

what is visual convention

Answer 45

Used to guide our attention on websites When not well organised see as negative or not attractive Way group – way of guiding attention and positive aesthetic appeal and appeal of product

Question 46

what is Oranges mobile campaign

Answer 46

Brand aim: to move mobile phones to personal everyday use rather than business use Brand conceived of as being warm, friendly, energetic and optimistic Using the colour orange meant that the marketing campaign became very memorable and impactful quickly Within 2 weeks 45% awareness of brand in the UK had been achieved 1994- relaunch of mobile phone (previously large and chunky)- called name of company orange As influential back then as apple is now Relaunch effective as used colour orange as a way of conveying meaning of the product Sociable colour/ attention grabber Things associated orange colour with – meaning of orange colour = implicit semantics to make more memorable and typify brand message Also used by easyjet

Question 47

what did Cyr, Head & Larios (2010) study investigate

Answer 47

- Wanted to look at effects of colour appeal- hypothosised that if colour scheme of website appealing- would effect other things of the consumer- more trustworthy/ satisfaction knock on effects of loyalty for product

Question 48

what were the hypothoses in Cyr, Head & Larios (2010) study

Answer 48

H1 - Increased colour appeal - increases trust - increases satisfaction H2 - Increased trust - increases e-loyalty H3 - Increased satisfaction - increases e-loyalty ``` H4 - Effects of culture – on appeal, trust and satisfaction - Germans will ‘prefer’ blue (Cyr & Trevor-Smith, 2006) - Canadians will ‘prefer’ grey -Japanese will ‘prefer’ yellow ```

Question 49

what measures were used in Cyr, Head & Larios (2010) study

Answer 49

o Questionnaire data o Eye tracking data o Interview data

Question 50

what was concluded in Cyr, Head & Larios (2010) study

Answer 50

Colour appeal affects trust and satisfaction (H1/H2) Trust & satisfaction are strong predictors of E-loyalty (H3) All cultures dislike yellow schemes, but Germans prefer blue and Canadians grey (H4) - Found that when tried to replicate earlier findings- all disliked yellow dispite what found previously-> need for replication! - Important to be aware of national colour preferences- particularly for national products No differences in the time spent viewing colour schemes Interviews revealed that colour appeal produces feelings of beauty, positive emotion (warm, fun), harmony, etc. Found a lot of positive effects

Question 51

what is the mere exposure effect according to Zajonc 1968

Answer 51

- “ mere repeated exposure of the individual to a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the enhancement of his attitude toward it” (p.1) o Effects of repeated exposure- series of stimuli for 2 seconds- nonsense words/ Chinese characters/ photos- wouldn’t expect to build in their appeal

Question 52

what happened in Zajonc 1968 study

Answer 52

- Stimuli shown for 2 seconds - 0-6 scale - How ‘good’ is the meaning of Turkish words or Chinese characters? - How much do they like individuals in photographs?

Question 53

what is the explanation behind Zajonc 1968 study

Answer 53

o Previously seen items are processed more fluently o Individuals generate positive cognitions/thoughts based on their experience of fluency o Explained by processing fluency – what occurs when see something several times- better at processing stimulus  Ease of processing- attributed positively, not nessacarily aware of process - This is NOT the same as saying that the more we think and reflect on an object, the more we will tend to like it – exposure, rather than cognition or thought, is enough. It is automatic. - Been replicated many times – eg alter and oppenheimer - ‘halo effect’ - Norman (2004 ) visceral beauty responses o Responding by makig decisions very quickly- build up a halo effect

Question 54

what is visceral beauty repsonses according to Norman 2004

Answer 54

o Responding by making decisions very quickly- build up a halo effect

Question 55

how many pps were there in Fang, Singh & Ahluwalia (2007) study of the mere exposure effects on the internet

Answer 55

232 students from the University of Kansas

Question 56

what was the procedure in Fang, Singh & Ahluwalia (2007) study of the mere exposure effects on the internet

Answer 56

Banner ads on the web page being read changed regularly Participants saw target ads 0, 5, or 10 times Participants rated ads after reading the web page

Question 57

what was rated I lindgard et al 2006s study of the mere exposure effects on the internet

Answer 57

o Rated liking for 100 web pages seen for 500 milliseconds Rated liking for 100 web pages a 2nd time to check reliability Ratings were reliably the same on the 2nd occasion.

Question 58

what were the results in lindgard et al 2006s study of the mere exposure effects on the internet

Answer 58

Really strong correlation of .9 When saw something = higher liking Liking = halo effect Showed that that decision instantaneous

Question 59

what was found in Olivia et al (2004) study of the mere exposure effect- scene gist capture

Answer 59

Found that the gist of a scene can captured in a single glance/fixation This includes both ‘bottom-up’ information – colour, surface, volume – and ‘high-level’ information – objects, semantic knowledge activation Thus, gist is captured ‘at a glance’ at both perceptual & conceptual levels Ability to perceive scenes ‘jist of scenes’- estimated time would take= 67 miliseconds Stimuli using= decide what type of landscape they had seen- x1 countryside, with trees, x1 townscene, with skyscrapers,  some similarity At level of 67 miliseconds- could pick up sufficient info to make basic perceptions Builds halo effect if you instantaneously like it