Lecture 5: Learning & Memory Flashcards
(24 cards)
Learning = ____
= A lasting change in behaviour resulting from experience
Learning
Classical conditioning (CC)
= ____ → ____ → ____
⚠️ CR can ____ from UCR in ____ and ____, they just have to be _____.
= NS1-UCS associations (repeated many times) → NS predicts UCS
→ NS/CS elicits CR
⚠️CR can differ from UCR in intensity or forms, they just have to be linked to the same S-S association
Learning – Classical Conditioning
Types of CC
Higher-order conditioning
= ____ → ____
____ → ____
____, ____ ….
- CR becomes ____ each time
e.g. ____
Fear Conditioning/Aversive learning
= ____ (____) → ____ → ____ (____)
- Learned Association is ____ (____)and ____ (____).
e.g. ____
Higher-order conditioning
= NS1-UCS associations (repeated many times) → NS1/CS1 elicits CR1
NS2-NS2 associations (repeated many times) → NS2/CS2 elicits CR2
NS3, NS4…
- CR becomes weaker each time
e.g. Advertising
Fear Conditioning/Aversive learning
= NS-aversive UCS association (one pairing is enough)→ NS predicts UCS → NS/CS elicits CR (Fear)
- Learned Association is Strong (lasts life time) and resilient (hard to override)
e.g. Phobia
Learning – Classical Conditioning
Application of Classical Conditioning: Human overdose reaction
NS/CS = Bathroom
UCS = Drug, UCR = Body defence response
____
→ ____
→ ____
→ ____; ____
NS/CS = Bathroom
UCS = Drug, UCR = Body defence response
Bathroom-Drug association happens many times
→ Bathroom predicts drug
→ Bathroom elicits Body defence response
→ High dose is safe in the bathroom
High dose is unsafe or even lethal in other environments
Learning – Classical Conditioning
Stimulus (CS) generalization
= ____
e.g. The Little Albert
NS/CS =
UCS = ____, UCR = ____.
____
→ ____
→ ____
→ Generalization: ____
= New stimuli similar in physical characteristics to the original CS may elicit CR
e.g. The case of Little Albert
NS/CS = Albino rats (White furry creatures)
UCS = Noise, UCR = Fear (Cry)
Albino rats - Noise association happens many times
→ Albino rats predict Noise
→ Albino rats elicits Fear (Cry)
→ Generalization: Anything else that was white and furry (Rabbits, beards, masks and more) elicits Fear
Learning – Classical Conditioning
Acquisition: Whether CS-NCS Association will be learned
Acquisition = ____
Nature Aspect
____ = ____
e.g. ____ (CTA) = ____ → ____ → ____
- While Stimuli other than food are ____ to pair with illness (lights, music, temperature)→ elicit ____ CR
Nurture Aspect
____ = a familiar ____
____ = a familiar ____
→ Because ____
Acquisition = the initial stage of learning when NS-UCS associations are repeated many times → NS/CS starts to elicit CR
Nature Aspect
Preparedness = we are biologically hardwired to learn certain NS-UCS associations
e.g. Conditioned taste aversion/CTA = taste (CS) – illness (UCS) → taste predicts illness → taste elicits fear
- While Stimuli other than food are difficult to pair with illness (lights, music, temperature)→ elicit poor CR
Nurture Aspect
Latent inhibition = a familiar NS takes longer to become a CS than a new NS
e.g. If you’ve eaten a food many times before without getting sick (familiar NS), and one time you get ill after eating it, latent inhibition may protect you from forming CTA
Blocking = a familiar CS1 prevents learning about a new CS2 when CS1 and the new NS are associated with UCS at the same time
→ Because the outcome (UCS) is already fully predicted by CS1 so there is no surprise
Learning – Classical Conditioning
Extinction: the Strength of the learned CS-NCS Association
Extinction = ____
⚠️Extinction results in the ____ not ____ of learned association
(supported by ____, ____ and ____)
Reinstatement = After extinction, the CR can ____
Spontaneous Recovery = After extinction, the CR can ____
⚠️CR doesn’t rebound to ____
Renewal = After extinction, CR can ____
→ S-S association is ____
CS-UCS association ____ in one context _____
Extinction =a decline or elimination of the CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without UCS
⚠️Extinction results in the suppression – not loss – of learned associations
(supported by reinstatement, renewal and spontaneous recovery)
Reinstatement = After extinction, the CR can return to full strength
after a single UCS-CS repairing
Spontaneous Recovery = After extinction, the CR can rebound after some time with no CS-UCS repairing
⚠️CR doesn’t rebound to its full strength
Renewal = After extinction, CR can reappear when the CS is presented in a different context from where the extinction occurs
→ S-S association is context specific
CS-UCS association formed or extinguished in one context doesn’t generalize well to a different context
Learning – Classical Conditioning
Application of Extinction: Exposure Therapy
Exposure therapy = ____ → ____
Exposure therapy = Repeatedly presenting the fear trigger (CS) in a safe and controlled environment (without UCS)
→ Extinction of CR
Learning
Operant Conditioning
= ____ → ____ → ____
= S-R association (schedule) → S as reinforcement or punishment → increase/stability/decrease in R frequency
— | — | — |
Learning – operant conditioning
CC vs OC
Target behavior is: ____ ____
Behavior is a function of: ____ ____
Behavior depends on: ____ ____
⚠️Though we consider OC and CC separately, ____
The ___ in CC can be the ____ (____) in OC
Automatic, Voluntary
Stimuli, Consequence
Automatic nervous system, Skeletal muscle
⚠️Though we consider OC and CC separately, there are many situations where both might occur
The CS in CC can be involved in the S (old CS) and be the R (new CS) in OC.
Learning – operant conditioning
Types of OC (Types of Reinforcement and Punishment)
Positive Reinforcement:
Negative Reinforcement:
Positive Punishment:
Negative Punishment:
Positive Reinforcement: Add pleasant stimulus
to increase/maintain behaviour
Negative Reinforcement: Remove aversive stimulus
to increase/maintain behaviour
Positive Punishment: Add aversive stimulus
to decrease behaviour
Negative Punishment: Remove pleasant stimulus
to decrease behaviour
Learning – operant conditioning
Application of OC
Token economies (in hospitals and classrooms)
____ = ____
____ = ____
Pleasant S =
NS = ____ UCS = ____
____
→ ____
→ ____
Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) (for children with autism spectrum disorders)
Both ____ and ____.
____
- ____
Token economies (in hospitals and classrooms)
Positive Reinforcement = Good behaviours get tokens
Negative Punishment = Bad behaviours cost tokens
Pleasant S = Token
NS = Tokens UCS = Goods and services (ice cream, movies)
Token - Goods and services associations
→ Token predicts Goods and Services
→ Token elicits pleasant feeling
Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) (for children with autism spectrum disorders)
Both Reinforcements and Punishments
Intensive study of behavioural patterns, with the goal of encouraging certain behaviours through a personalized behaviour modification program.
- Controversial
Learning – operant conditioning
Concerns with Punishment
-
- (”____” as R in OC)
- (”____” as R in OC)
→ ____ is better
- Punishment does not tell you what to do, only what NOT to do.
- Punishment may interfere with learning, limiting growth (”leaning” as R in OC)
- Punishment can encourage secretive behaviour (”telling” as R in OC)
→ A mix of R and P is best
Learning – operant conditioning
Reinforcement schedules
Continuous = Reinforcement given ____
Partial = Reinforcement given ____
Ratio = Reinforcement given based on ____
Interval = Reinforcement given based on ____
Fixed = Reinforcement given ____
Variable = Reinforcement given ____
Fixed Ratio = ____ (e.g.___)
Variable Ratio = ____ (e.g.___)
Fixed Interval = ____ (e.g.___)
Variable Interval = ____ (e.g.___)
Identify Reinforcement schedule
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Resulted Behaviour Patterns
All fixed schedules have ____
All variable schedules have ____
Fixed Ratio = Reinforcement every fixed amount of responses
Reinforcement any amount of responses
Fixed Interval = Reinforcement every fixed amount of time
Variable Interval = Reinforcement any amount of time
Identify Reinforcement Schedule
Step 1: Identify reinforcement (pleasant stimuli)
Step 2: Reinforcement is given “every” → Fixed; “any” → Variable
Step 3: Reinforcement is given based on response **→ Ratio; time → Interval
Resulted Behaviour Patterns
All fixed schedules have a post-reinforcement pause
All variable schedules have steady response rates (highest for VR)
Learning
Alternate Forms of Learning
Observational Learning
= ____
- ____
____ Study on ____
____
Latent Learning
= ____ (____)
- ____
Tolman & Honzik’s ____ Study
____
Observational Learning
= Learning through witnessing behaviours
- No direct experience required
Bandura’s Studies of Aggression
Children who watch videos of aggressive acts are more likely to engage in them immediately afterward.
Latent Learning
= Learning not being expressed (usually because of a lack of incentive)
- Learning could be revealed if incentive is given
Tolman & Honzik’s Maze Study
The rats had learned the maze before reinforcement — but only showed what they knew once a incentive is given.
Learning
Maximizing Learning
Learning method
____
1. ____
2. ____
3. ____
4. ____
Learning styles
____, ____, ____, ____ (VARK) and ____.
Hypothesis on learning style
____
____
→ Neither idea is well-supported
____
____
Interestingly, people who identify as ____ perform better
Learning Methods
Most people don’t use great methods, even if they are aware of them.
-
Longhand note-taking over laptop note-taking→ involve motor control → engaging more of the nervous system
- Nearby laptops can be distracting
- Pair note-taking with mental imagery→ engaging more of the nervous system
- Retrieval learning: Testing yourself
- Spaced practice more effective than massed practice
Learning Styles
Visual, auditory, reading, kinesthetic (VARK) and more.
Hypothesis on learning style
People differ naturally in their learning style
People perform best using their preferred method
→ Neither idea is well-supported
Most people study the exact same way
Enforcing a study method does not improve performance
Interestingly, people who identify as visual learners perform better
Memory
= ____ where info is ____, ____ and ____.
Modal model of Memory
Three stores of memory = ____, ____, ____
- Serial Processing = info flows from ____ to ____, to ____
Properties of Memory
Duration = ____
Capacity = ____
= Process whereby information is stored, consolidated (stabilized) and retrieved
Modal model of Memory
Three stores of memory = sensory, **short-term/STM, long-term/LTM
- Serial Processing = information flows from Sensory → STM → LTM
Properties of Memory
Duration = The amount of time information can be held in a memory store before it’s forgotten
Capacity = The amount of information a memory store can hold at one time
Memory
Sensory Memory
Properties ____ for each type of sensory memory
e.g. ____ vs ____
Duration = _____
Limited by ____ = ____
Improved by ____
e.g. ____ (iconic vs echoic)
Capacity = ____ (i.e. ____)
e.g. iconic capacity = ____
Properties different for each type of sensory memory
e.g. iconic (visual) vs. echoic (auditory)
Duration = very short (seconds or fractions of a second)
Limited by Decay (unless attended to) **
= Information fades over time
e.g. iconic has a much shorter duration than echoic
Capacity = theoretically large but functionally small
i.e. You can take in a huge amount of sensory input at any given moment, but you can only attend to and report on a few stimuli.
e.g. iconic capacity = 5
Memory
Short-term memory (STM)
Duration = ____
Limited by ____ (unless) and ____
= ____
Improved by ____
____ = ____
____ = ____
(which is more effective?)
Capacity = ____
tested by ____ = ____
improved by ____ and ____
= ____
→ ____
What if both are inhibited?
capacity may drop to ____
Duration = 15 – 30 seconds (often citing 20 s)
Limited by Decay (unless it’s emotionally salient) and Interference
= New information disrupts the ability to remember current information
Improved by Rehearsal
Maintenance = simple repetition
Elaborative = complex, relating the information to other concepts
- more effective
Capacity = 7 items
Tested using the digit span task = longest string of digits you can remember without error
Improved by Rehearsal and Chunking
= Dividing a body of information into several meaningful groups
→ STM capacity is thus not ~7 items, but ~7 chunks
What if chunking and rehearsal are prevented?
Capacity may drop to as little as 3 items
Memory
Working Memory
(Updated and more complex version of ____)
Brain not only stores but also ____.
____ = ____
____ = ____
____ = ____
____ = ____
____ = ____
Measure of WM Capacity
____ (OSPAN) = ____ (____) while ____ (____)
____/____ effect/____ ____ effect = ____, ____.
→ ____ more ____, ____ less ____.
(Updated and more complex version of STM)
**Brain not only stores but also manipulates information
Central executive decides how to deal with the incoming information
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad deals with visual and spatial **information
e.g. mentally rotating an object or visualizing a map
Phonological Loop deals with verbal and auditory information
Phonological store = STM **store for sounds
Articulatory control = inner speech
Measure of WM Capacity
Operation Span Task (OSPAN) = The number of unrelated words that can be remembered (temporary storage) while simultaneously carrying out a math task (active processing)
Primacy/recency effect or serial position effect = When given a short list of items, you will generally remember the first and last part well
→ Primacy more rehearsed; Recency less dacay
Memory
Long Term Memory (LTM)
____ Memory
____ = ____
____ = ____
____ Memory
- ____
- ____
- ____
LTM retrieval failures: ____ phenomenon
Priming = ____
→ Weak memory can be retrieved ____
Declarative Memory
Episodic = Memory of past event event
Semantic = Memory of knowledge
Non-declarative Memory
- Learned through /experience
- Involuntary: no awareness of memory being utilized
- Non-declarative: contents of implicit memories cannot be reported (e.g. “How do you remember which muscles to use to balance the bike?”)
Memory
Memory Phenomena
Memory is a ____ Process (Not Passively Replayed!!)
Memory reconstruction is shaped by our
- ____
- ____
- ____
→ Memory reflects ____
→ ____
Schemas = ____ (____)
Script = ____
→ Script schemas ____
e.g. ____ = ____
When we’re missing details (like context or timing)
→ ____
→ ____ (e.g. ___)
Context-dependent memory = Best memory when ____
State-Dependent Memory = Best memory when ____
Mood-dependent memory = Best memory when ____
Memory is a Reconstructive Process (Not Passively Replayed!!)
Memory reconstruction is shaped by our
- Schemas
- Current Goals, expectations, knowledge
- Retrieval cue: context, state, mood as cue
→ Memory reflects who we are in the present
→ Memory can change every time we recall
Schemas = A cognitive framework developed through past experience
(i.e. how things typically work)
Script = a type of schema consisting of a sequence of events predicted by the individual
→ Script schemas fills memory gaps
e.g. You feel certain events happened at a particular wedding
because they happened at other weddings
<aside>
**e.g. Source monitoring =** the process of trying to remember the source of a information
When we’re missing details (like context or timing)
**→ Schemas** fill the gap
**→ Source monitoring errors** (**e.g.** plagiarism or artistic theft)
</aside>
Context-dependent memory = Best memory when encoding and reconstructing in the same place
e.g. Learn underwater, test underwater
State-Dependent Memory = Best memory when encoding and reconstructing in the same physiological state
e.g. Learn while drinking, test while drinking
Mood-dependent memory = Best memory when encoding and reconstructing in the same emotional state
e.g. Depressed people might be more likely to recall negative information
Memory
Memory Phenomenon
False Memory
→ False memories of ____ can result in ____ (____)
Can be caused by:
____
____ can be affected by ____ (____ and ____ hormone)
→ Memory of ____ excellent
→ Memory of ____ poor (though ____)
e.g. ____ can be false though ____.
- also due to ____ effect
____ effect
____ can be distorted by ____
(study)
- can affect anyone
____ can be vulnerable
- but the risk varies by ____ and ____
____ and ____ more vulnerable
____ and ____ more vulnerable
- may be created by ____ with ____, ____ and ____ and more.
→ False memories of crimes can result in wrongful convictions
(3/4 of wrongful convictions are due to erroneous testimony)
Can be caused by:
Physiological state of arousal (during the original event)
Information storage is affected by the physiological state of arousal (changes in cortisol and noradrenaline)
→ Memory of certain details is excellent
e.g. You’re unlikely to forget: who won the game; a weapon used in a crime that you witnessed
→ Memory of other details are poor (though confidence high)
e.g. You’re likely to forget: where you watched the game; what the individual carrying the weapon looked like
<aside>
**e.g. Eyewitness testimony** can be false though confidence are high
- Also due to **misinformation effect**
</aside>
Misinformation effect
= Memory can be inadvertently distorted by misleading or inconsistent information later given
Performance is worse in the inconsistent condition
-
Can happen to anyone
Even individuals with exceptional memory (extreme outliers) are vulnerable -
But risk varies by group & individual trait
Younger children & older adults are more vulnerable;
high empathy and low intelligence are more vulnerable - May be created by interactions with law enforcement, media or therapists and more
Memory
Memory phenomenon
Repressed memories
____ and may ____
- controversial
memory war =
____ argue repressed memory is false
Aversive memories too traumatic to handle may be hidden beneath consciousness and may re-emerge later in life
- Controversial
Memory wars = Debate over whether repressed memories are real or falseSkeptical psychologists believe repressed memories are likely false
