Lecture 5: Scientific literature

Question 1

what is the purpose of science

Answer 1

• The basic purpose of science is to acquire information that will help us to describe, explain, predict, and control phenomena in the world.
• Science distinguishes itself from other human pursuits by its power to examine and understand phenomena on a level that allows us to predict with varying degrees of accuracy, if not sometimes control, the outcomes of events in the natural world and human-made world.
• However, we need trustworthy information or data, acquired in ways that minimizes bias and other misleading factors (Barends & Rousseau, 2018: p87)

Question 2

Where to find scientific evidence for Business & Management?

Answer 2

• AJG (2021) helps academics decide where to submit their research for publication
• Lists ‘refereed’ journals and their ‘peer review’ processes
• Presentation of new findings at academic conferences
• Business media articles (BBC, The Economist, CNN, FT etc).

Question 3

How critical is scientific literature to our understanding of organizations?

Answer 3

• Essential to understand and improve the quality of organizational life, performance, and sustainability
• Q. Which industries or fields has science helped us evolve and advance in Business & Management?
  
  • operations management, marketing, customer relationship management (CRM), supply chain logistics, data analytics, human resource management, and product development
  • strategies
• Q. Has it also proven unhelpful or destructive to us as human beings?
  
  • dependency
  • confusion as there is so much information
  • handled by irresponsible people
• No science = no universities

Question 4

What constitutes ‘good’ scientific evidence?

Answer 4

• Making a persuasive case for the need to study the phenomena of interest
• Demonstrate past and current knowledge about the subject
• Methodological rigour (detailing how the research was carried out)
• Clear and unambiguous research questions at the outset
• A clear framework of analysis (Showing you analysed your data; explaining what you discovered and how the results & findings were arrived at)
• Re-iteration with the literature and what was previously known (i.e. confirmatory results, or offering results with new insights with original findings?
• What are the implications of your study for theory, practice, and future research?

Question 5

what is The scientific method?

Answer 5

One of these safety checks is the scientific method, a defining feature of science since the 17th century. The scientific method can be summarized in one sentence: Do whatever it takes to avoid fooling yourself into thinking something is true that is not, or that something is not true that is. 2 Scientists use it as a procedure to ensure the trustworthiness of their findings usually by:

Asking a question about something they observe (How? What? When? How many? Who? Why? or Where?).
Formulating a hypothesis (an assumption about how things work or a prediction about what will happen).
Testing the hypothesis by doing an experiment or making systematic observations.
Collecting the data.
Analysing the data.
Drawing a conclusion as to whether and the extent to which the hypothesis is likely to be right.

When scientists find discrepancies between the hypothesis and the outcome of the test, they modify the hypothesis and repeat steps 3 to 6. The scientific method is used in all scientific fields – including chemistry, physics and psychology – but scientists in these disciplines ask different questions and perform different kinds of tests.

Question 6

Who engages with, and applies, scientific evidence?

Answer 6

• “As human beings, we are still inclined to use the most easily accessible source of information – ourselves.”(Barends & Rousseau, 2018: p87)
• Engagement and application may depend on your occupational context and industry
• Legal and statutory requirements of your industry / field (e.g. in nursing, policing, medicine, law with its emphasis on ‘evidence-based practice’)
• Those required to demonstrate the validity and legitimacy of their working practices (in the past and the present)

Question 7

what are 2 other safety checks?

Answer 7

Organized scepticism (peer review)
Another safety check that lies at the core of science is that the evidence generated by scientists is subject to ‘organized scepticism’. This means that the scientific community collectively scrutinizes findings from a position of distrust:

Replication
The final safety check to ensure the trustworthiness of scientific claims is replication. In fact, exactly repeating studies to see if the same result is obtained is a cornerstone of science. If novel findings from scientific research can be replicated, it means they are more likely to be correct.

Question 8

Science is not about ‘truth’ or ‘proof’. Explain

Answer 8

• Science as Probabilistic, Not Proven
  
  • Scientific knowledge offers the best current evidence and quantifies how likely a hypothesis is true—but never delivers absolute proof.
  • Managers should act on the best available evidence while staying open to new data that may overturn or refine existing models.
• Three Sources of Uncertainty

1. Future Evidence May Erode Confidence
   - New, more rigorous studies can expose flaws in earlier research or its assumptions—so today’s “accepted” findings can later be called into question.
   
   2. Boundary Conditions
      
      • Even well‐supported theories hold only under certain conditions. What works in one context (e.g., goal‐setting theory) may not generalize to all settings.
   3. Refinement of Constructs
      • As research progresses, broad concepts often split into more precise subtypes (e.g., organizational commitment → affective, normative, continuance), each with distinct effects.

• Implication for Evidence-Based Managers
  • Don’t seek “proof.” Look for probabilistic estimates of what works.
  • Stay adaptive. Be ready to revise decisions as new evidence, boundary insights, or refined constructs emerge.
  • Use evidence to check biases, knowing its strength lies in indicating likelihoods rather than certainties.

Question 9

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research – Summary

Answer 9

• Qualitative research deals with non-numerical data like interviews, observations, and documents. It’s often exploratory, used to understand deeper meanings, motivations, or mechanisms behind a phenomenon and to generate hypotheses or theories.
• Quantitative research uses numerical data like surveys, tests, and statistics. It’s used to measure, test hypotheses, uncover patterns, and generalize results to broader populations.
• There is a common misconception that quantitative research is objective (“hard” data) and qualitative is subjective (“soft” data). People often take sides, but this debate is misguided.
• A helpful analogy: asking which research type is better is like asking which car is best—Formula 1, Fiat, or Range Rover? The answer depends entirely on the context and purpose.
• The key principle is methodological appropriateness: choose the research method that best suits your research question.

Question 10

Barends et al (2017) Managerial attitudes and perceived barriers regarding evidence-based practice: an international survey. PLOS One, 12(10): e0184594.. Explain.

Answer 10

• Survey of 2789 managers in UK, EU, USA & Australia
• Most have positive attitudes towards EBP. However, lack of time and a limited understanding of scientific research are perceived as major barriers to the uptake and implementation of EBP in management.

1. What are the implications of these finding for organizations promoting Continuous Professional Development (CPD), and teaching in Business Schools etc?
   
   1. people may be unwilling
   2. why bother researching and publishing if no one uses it

Question 11

Scientific evidence: always accurate and trustworthy?

Answer 11

• The case of antidepressant use from the 1990’s
• What have been the consequences of prescribing behaviour and antidepressant use on patients based on what is now known scientifically?
• Can ‘science’ funded by private commercial entities be trusted?

tobacco, antidepressents

Question 12

Understanding scientific evidence

Answer 12

COVID 19 onset in the USA

• Recall Weick’s (1995) managerial sensemaking definition
• Recall dealing with ambiguity and managing uncertainty
• Multiple interpretations of the same scientific data
• Conflicting interpretations
• The ‘scientists’ v the ‘politicians’
• Understanding scientific modelling

Source: BBC2 (2021) 54 Days: America and the Pandemic

Question 13

Limitation to scientific literature

Answer 13

• coincidence
  -methodological bias
• co founders
  -placebo effect
  -moderators and mediators

Question 14

what is a research design?

Answer 14

A research design is the ‘blueprint’ of a study that describes its steps, methods and techniques used to collect, measure and analyse data. Examples of study designs we frequently use in management are cross-sectional studies, experiments, case studies and meta-analyses.

Question 15

Qualitative versus quantitative research

Answer 15

the key principle is methodological appropriateness: choose the research method that best suits your research question

Question 16

Explain PICOC

Answer 16

A PICOC is a mnemonic to help you find studies that are relevant to your professional context.

Population

Who?
Type of employee, subgroup, people who may be affected by the outcome

Intervention

What or how?
Management technique/method, factor, independent variable

Comparison

Compared to what?
Alternative intervention, factor, variable

Outcome

What are you trying to accomplish/improve/change?
Objective, purpose, goal, dependent variable

Context

In what kind of organization/circumstances?
Type of organization, sector, relevant contextual factors