lecture Flashcards

Question

what are several forms of complex and non-complex exposure learning? and why are they more complex?

Answer 1

non-complex - habituation & sensitisation complex - latent inhibition and perceptual learning - important influence on how and what animals and humans learn

Answer 2

Lubow & Moore, 1959 retardation in learning to a stimulus brought about by simple pre-exposure to that stimulus with no noticeable outcome therefore find it more challenging to learn when stimulus paired with certain outcome

Answer 3

demonstrated the context-specificity of latent inhibition rats were pre-exposed to a CS in one context, then appetitively trained (conditioned) with that CS in either the same or a different context highly significant context-specificity effect, whereby more latent inhibition (poorer learning) in the same group than in the different context group effect of context switch doesn't occur with simple conditioning (if instead of pre-exposure, CS and US were paired before switching contexts and testing)

Answer 4

PL - faster acquisition of a discrimination due to pre-exposure after pre-exposure to shapes in the home cage, rats were better able to discriminate between them to get food when trained in the jumping stand, compared to non-preexposed controls pre-exposed group showed faster learning, as illustrated by reduced error rates

Answer 5

faster acquisition of a discrimination as a result of pre-exposure to stimuli that bear an appropriate relationship to the target stimuli e. g 2 pictures being shown before discrimination task enables animals to better tell the difference between them - as opposed to learning discrimination slower in control group not pre-exposed e. g taste aversion to one solution does not generalise to other solution if pre-exposure to both - as opposed to generalising aversion to both if not pre-exposed to them so unlike latent inhibition, pre-exposure aids learning, and doesn't hinder it (due to enabling more rapid discrimination between the unique features of the stimuli, without exposure would pay more attention to features they have in common - as long as common element receives more pre-exposure than unique elements)

Answer 6

face many of the same problems and therefore have to have the same intellectual processes in order to sovle them e.g finding food, locating young, hiding from prey ability to learn about recurring sequences of events in order to repeat beneficial behaviour and prevent behaviour with negative consequences

Answer 7

can't just use brain size as may have bigger brains due to when bigger, need for increased function e.g elephant find two animals with similar body size then compare the size of the brain (brain mass/body mass - cephalisation index), so brain size isn't dependent on brain to body ratio, which may account for the size of the brain assisted by cephalisation index and coefficient which calculates this ratio should look for deviations from plot of brain mass against body mass - e.g monkeys showing differences in intelligence across species corresponds to results from Nakajima study on students ranking animal intelligence the animal with the bigger brain in this situation may then be assumed to have more intelligence e.g humans and ostrich same body weight humans have bigger brain for some part of the brain, bigger may = higher intelligence e.g hippocampus and spatial memory issue: e.g amphibians seem less intelligent in this way but bodies heavier due to water supporting this

Answer 8

Bateson & Horn ``` chicks preference for a given stimulus is measured via the speed with which it runs in the wheel runs faster (moving towards) the imprinted stimulus ``` found changes in synapses in teh area equivalent to the hippocampus after imprinting

Answer 9

put in box for 6 days and would hear a tone 8 times (preepxosure condition) whereas control didn't hear these tones had 4 days of conditioning where after tone, had temporary access to water from a magazine source found that preexposure group learnt nothing on day one and were generally much slower learners than the control group so latent inhibition as retardation of acquisition of learning due to pre-exposure to a stimulus

Answer 10

found that at 4-5, when pre-exposed, children took a lot more time to get trained condition to over 90% correct, indicating poorer learning whereas at 7-10, were a lot faster and no pre-exposure effect, so no latent inhibition exhibited (unlike that found in animals) suggested this is due to control processes preventing latent inhibition task was indicating which side one of 2 outside cards was by pressing a key (pre-exposure to middle card of different sized black or white squares) then in test phase, had to press a key for the side a certain square was that they had been exposed to in the study phase supported by a recent study by McLaren et al, 2019 finding latent inhibition and lower accruacy and longer response time to pre-exposed over novel stimulus (control group) in 4-5 year olds but no such effect in 7-10 year olds

Answer 11

aversion conditioned to a novel vinegar (injection) generalised more strongly to the other novel vinegar in the control group than in either a group exposed to multiple previous vinegars or a single, group vinegar (common to all the vinegars) so multiple group being familiar with 4 different vinegars enhanced their ability to discriminate between the 2 new vinegars, thus not generalise aversion between them (demonstrating perceptual learning aided through pre-exposure)

Answer 12

better at discriminating upright faces in tasks than upside down ones found dog experts showed face inversion effect for dogs due to experience at doing this (preexposure) but novices showed no effect and discrimination ability equal (Diamond & Carey, 1986) - perceptual learning 'average' features become less salient and distinctive ones become more salient which helps recognition with upright faces - latent inhibition

Answer 13

1. findings suggest the opposite to intelligence via the cephalisation index (brain:body ratio) bees and carps learnt much faster how to receive a reward constantly than pigeons and human 5 month olds (Angermeier, 1984) 2. and speed of learning differs based on measurements used to assess it e.g rats learn much faster when have to press lever for reward than when have to perform this same action to avoid an electric shock (Bolles, 1971) and in taste aversion, when poison paired with salt and light+click paired with shock 3. found dolphins had difficulty forming learning sets with visual but were fine with auditory stimuli 4. differences between species makes it hard to devise a task which exerts the same demands on them (what the optimal conditions for testing each species are) e.g learning response for food may depend on motor, motivational and perceptual resources - contextual variables (Bitterman, 1965) - links back to first point as may have been that food was more rewarding for certain species or easier to locate lever etc. - so better a battery of tests looking for patterns (IQ type of approach)

Answer 14

* training makes it easier for one neuron to activate the other in the cerbellum * event excites neurons to a greater extent at the start rather than at the end of training (maximal impact when event unexpected i.e at the start of training)

Answer 15

``` before conditioning: unconditioned stimulus (of food) provokes an unconditioned response (of salivation) neutral stimulus (tuning fork) doesn't provoke a conditioned response (salivating) ``` during conditioning: the neutral and unconditioned stimuli of a tuning fork and food, respectively, provoke an unconditioned response (of salivating) after conditioning: the tuning fork is now a conditioned stimulus (due to pairing) and salivation is now a conditioned response to this stimulus

Answer 16

in all vertebrate species that have been tested AND some invertebrates for any conditioned stimulus an animal can detect shown with spinal reflexes (e.g in brain damaged patients) in humans e.g blinking

Answer 17

eye blink to an air puff in humans / galvanic skin response (GSR) key pecking in pigeons ('autoshaping') taste aversion in rats (falvour + illness) conditioned suppression of lever pressing in rats

Answer 18

1. stimulus generalisation 2. extinction 3. overshadowing 4. blocking

Answer 19

- conditioned response will occur to similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus, the response weakens the further away from the original stimulus it becomes (normally distributed with CS in middle - generalisation gradient) e.g pitch - found in rabbits that wore trained to blink to a tone (via expectancy of a shock) and that still produced this response when tone sufficiently similar to the orginal and when extent of generalisation incomplete (quite far removed from original) then generalisation decrement - neural explanation: due to exciting some but not all of sensory neurons initially excited by orginal CS, thus eliciting the CR albeit a weaker one, and explaining that the less similar, the weaker the response as the less sensory neurons excited

Answer 20

- start with a well trained conditioned stimulus, then repeatedly present on its own and the CR will weaken as non-reinforced presentations

Answer 21

Mackintosh, 1976 - train light and noise together (compound) or separately and use different intensities of noise for different groups - test the light and noise - light and intense noise paired together has the highest suppression ratio (lack of conditioning) in presence of light as intense noise overshadows light (fine when non intense as only most intense grabs learning and if equal then balanced) - light and weak noise in training has highest suppression ratio (worst conditioning) in presence of noise as light overshadowing (not the case when intense noise)

Answer 22

Kamin, 1969 pair initial stimulus with result (shock) so conditioned response is fear then in second stage, pair noise AND light (another stimulus) with shock so noise and light lead to fear in the test, the group who went through both stages showed a lack of suppression to light as blocking prevents relationship between light and shock to be indepedently formed as blocked by pre-existing relationship of noise and shock (0.45) however, in control condition who didn't received first stage, had much higher suppression ratio (0.05) to light due to having light and noise paired together, not originally blocked by one of the stimuli (information is novel+surprising, not 'redundant' i.e predicted via other stimulus)

Answer 23

when conditioning delayed - conditioned stimulus before unconditioned stimulus then easily established conditioning when trace conditioning - conditioned stimulus much before the unconditioned stimulus then ease of conditioning depends on length of trace when simultaneous conditioning - conditioned and unconditioned stimulus presented at the same time, very little conditioning established (shows have mechanisms for understanding that A can be used to predict B, so why it doesn't work at the same time) (shown by conditioning being optimal after a 4-8 sec interval and after a couple of minutes, completely drops off)

Answer 24

the combined associative strength of all conditioned stimuli present on the learning episode, predicts the outcome strength of associations of UCS and CS representations predicts the strength of CR associative strength doesn't necessarily translate into responding associations form synaptic connections so spreading activation whereby representations of CS can activate representation of UCS

Answer 25

then: - form of learning described entirely objectively - scientific underpinning for concept of association - contributed to dominance of behaviourism now: - reliable phenomenon with determinable laws - practically useful e.g behavioural therapy - may account for involuntary forms of human learning e.g phobias - continued investigation of theories of pavlovian conditioning - not an explanation of ALL learning but gives insight into fundamental learning processes which may apply to humans

Answer 26

rat learns to press a lever steadily to get food then pair a tone with a shock see whether rat freezes when tone played (determined via comparing lever pressing before tone and after tone, and not number of presses as varies between rats) so suppression ratio closer to 0 indicates better conditioning as bigger difference between lever pressing before and during CS whereas 0.5 if no conditioning as exhibit the same behaviour in both conditions

Answer 27

asked to rate likelihood of an allergic reaction when pre-trained with allergic to avocado then after told allergic to avocado and bacon bacon given lower rating of likelihood than avocado as blocks formation of relationship between bacon and allergic

Answer 28

found that when rated the connection with their pressing and a white light coming on as 0 (meaning tapping doesn't make a difference) when in a group of white light coming on half the time found that when light would come on 1/8 when tapping and 7/8 when not, rated much more negatively the effect of tapping on a white light appearing so shows ppts can track contingencies without working out through calculations and instead just engaging with and thinking about the material

Answer 29

when white light occurs without the rat pressing a key, context (a constant) will overshadow key pressing so blocking key pressing so will learn less in this condition as reduced contingency due to interference of context (overshadowing association of key with white light)

Answer 30

found that pairing tree with shock and leaves without, humans able to figure out contingency between shock and tree through expectancy ratings and also, skin conductance hgiher for shock pairing than for non-paired picture BUT for 30% of ppts, not aware of contingency, which manifested in their expectancy ratings and skin conducatnce being similar for both pictures, suggesting that cognitive, conscious awareness necessary so not associative Hughdahl + Ohman, 1977 found that when ppts instructed that no more shocks would occur, then immediate extinction shown by skin conductance, compared to when non-instructed and merely extinction, which led to slower extinction (cognitive control can switch off response) lack of cog control - found that when instructed extinction for fear relevant stimuli, not the same immediate extinction as for irrelevant so responses not governed entirely by conscious expectancy and instead an automatic element, regarded as being due to Pavlovian conditioning

Answer 31

when there is a change in an animals behaviour as a result of one event being paired with another

Answer 32

panel illuminated for 5 secs and food delivered after a while, pigeons will peck it rapidly when illuminated example of pavlovian conditioning as pairing of panel with food sufficient to create a response of key pecking

Answer 33

Sheafor, 1975 2 groups of rabbits: tone + water straight after or tone and water separated by 12 minutes found that despite second group not having paired tone and water, a conditioned response of jaw movement still occurred (albeit less than in other group) when tone presented (maybe due to constantly expecting water and salient stimulus of tone evokes a response) suggests need for a control group given truly random control of sometimes pairing tone with water and sometimes separately, to show that the group of consistently paired had stronger response (jw movement) showing better conditioning

Answer 34

excitatory - conditioning allows an animal to learn that one stimulus signals another inhibitory - conditioning allows an animal to learn that one stimulis indicates the other will not occur

Answer 35

Hearst + Franklin, 1977 food never available when a key was lit as training continued, pigeons displayed tendency to move away from key that was illuminated suggesting able to learn that stimuli signal omission of food and that they can withdraw from this so technique of ensuring US is delivered in absencse but not presence of CS

Answer 36

pairing conditioned inhibitor directly with the US so if inhibitory conditioning results in stimulus being regarded as a signal for absence of US, then difficult to then convert this stimulus into signal for US Pearce et al, 1982 inhibitory CS paired with shock (slower conditioning than for below group) control group had lack of prior training so received the stimulus paired with a shock

Answer 37

stimulus being a signal for omission of US so this should occur whenever accompanied by a CS that has been paired wih the US in question Pearce et al, 1982 tone + shock, clicker + shock, clicker-light compound + nothing strong CR when presented with tone and clicker but not third group tone trials (presented alone) mixed with light-tone CR much higher for tone than compound so influence of light transferred well from clicker trial (where nothing happened) to tone so successful summation test as higher supression ratio (not inhibiting response) when light-tone than just tone

Answer 38

strengthening of a response through conditioning that was already elicited by the CS e.g withdrawing the gill when siphon or mantle shelf stimulated (Carew et al, 1983)

Answer 39

Carew et al, 1983 when stimulating siphon or mantle of sea snail, gillwould be withdrawn, which was strengthened through the addition of a shock in one condition in the condition with a shock(CS+), withhdrawal response much stronger and without a shock (CS-) much weaker example of alpha conditioning (strengthening response already present to CS) Hawkins et al, 1983 stimulation of siphon followed by tail shock whereas of mantle didn't recording electrode placed in motor neuron in contact with the 2 sensory neurons showed conditioning increase electrical activity considerably when shock compared to when not paired with shock (ability to excite motor neuron increased when paired with shock due to release of serotonin from interneuron in tail after shock, if sensory neuron fires at same time as this release, causing relatively permanent change enabling release of more neurotransmitters in future from sensory N, so when stimulated, stronger response in motor neuron)

Answer 40

activation of representation of UCS will active response system thus eliciting unconditioned response so repeated pairing of UCS with CS will develop connections so when CS presented, will excite the UCS response center and lead to response mimicing the one elicited by UCS OR growth of connection between CS and UCS representations so presentations of CS will excite representation of UCS which will then excite a response

Answer 41

associations can develop between 2 stimuli, even when neither of them has any unconditioned properties 1. serial conditioning - sequence of stimuli precedes UCS e.g tone-light-food and tone may lead to CR 2. sensory preconditioning - initial pairing of 2 stimuli then second pairing of one of the stimuli with something else, causing response to first stimuli not present in the second stage due to memory activation 3. second-order conditioning - normal pairing of NS (CS1) with UCS until CR regularly occurs, then new stimulus paired (CS2) with neutral (CS1) and UCS omitted, and CR may be observed with second stimulus despite never being paired, due to CS2 activating representation of CS1 which does the same for US and elicits response - shown by extinction of food pairing with CS1 leads to reduced responsivity to CS2 as representation has changed (Rashotte et al, 1977)

Answer 42

1. specific - those that make the UCS unique, where delivered, intensity etc. 2. affective - UCS has in common with other stimuli and reflect its motivational quality e.g shock has aversive characteristic that the animal knows to avoid

Answer 43

1. consummatory CR - when CS retrieves info about specific properties of UCS (distinguishing), then this CR would be performed e,g salivation to CS when paired with food 2. preparatory CR - when CS retrieved info about affective properties of UCS, would elicit a CR (difference to ^^ being not intimately tied to response elicited by US) 3. compensatory CR - CR will oppose/compensate for the unconditioned response e.g drug tolerance whereby CS of imminent injection leads to CR which counteracts the effect of the UCS (drug)

Answer 44

1. positive reinforcement - appetitive - more R 2. punishment - aversive - less R 3. negative reinforcement - no aversive - more R 4. omission training - no appetitive - less R

Answer 45

repeat actions leading to 'satisfying state of affairs' Hull: reinforcement due to drive reduction, so animal will work for food if its hungry etc.

Answer 46

a rule for deciding which responses we reinforce different schedules therefore lead to different, predictable patterns of response, recognisable on a cumulative record - continuous - CRF - reinforce every response - fixed ratio - FR - every nth response - response = pause after each reinforcement followed by fast responding - variable ratio - VR - every nth response on average e.g 8 and 12 if 10 - continuous fast responding - fixed interval - FI - 1st response after time t has elapsed since last reinforcer - pause after each reinforcement followed by gradual increase in response rate before interval - variable interval - VI - variable time period -continuous moderate response rate as unsure when interval is e. g VI60 means mean time from first response to reinforcer given has an average of 60 secs

Answer 47

ratio - reinforcement depends on number of responses interval - reinforcement depends on time interval

Answer 48

1. where animal has knowledge of the consequences of its actions (so be able to represent the outcome and its relationship to the action performed) - make inferences in combination with other knowledge e.g knows outcome valuable under certain drive state and knows outcome prdocued by certain action (never before performed), then can combine this to give appropriate response 2. stimulus to response (S-R) reflex supports habitual responding (overtraining leads to this)

Answer 49

∆V=a(λ - V) triangle V = change in associative strength between UCS and CS on a particular trial a = doesn't vary during conditioning and has value between 0-1 (will be given this) λ = magnitude of UCS, reflecting maximum association that the pairing can achieve V = strength of the CS-US association for example: when a=0.2 and λ=100, on the first occasion CS is paired with UCS, V will be 0, so... ∆V = 0.20 x (100-0) = 20 so increase in associative strength then second trial... ∆V = 0.20 x (100-20) = 16 third trial... ∆V = 0.20 x (100-36) = 12.8 (as do 20+16 for the V value as association increases) thus predicting that association strength and therefore CR strength will increase in rapid increments at the start then cease with continued training (when ∆V = 0 and V=100)

Answer 50

∆V=ab(λ - V) ``` ∆V = change in V (associative strength which increases the more conditioned together) ab = given in questions and usually .5 when multiplied λ = outcome so 1 when outcome e.g food given and 0 if not - magnitude of US SV = expectation on trial and predictive value (surprise value on first trial as completely unexpected) - strength of CS-US association (so 0 on first trial) ``` presenting CS without the UCS means value of λ would be 0 (as no magnitude of UCS) so if the a = 0.20 and V = 100 (received sufficient training to maximise strength of association) then... ∆V = 0.20 x (0-100) = -20 so first extinction trial will result in CS losing 20 units of associative strength thus able to explain the timings of extinction as initially rapid decline in association followed by smaller loses in associative strength complete when ∆V=-100 and V=0

Answer 51

(λ - V) when there is a large discrepancy between these at the start (high magnitude of UCS and low associative strength in that trial) shows that CS will be a poor predictor of the UCS and so occurance of UCS will be surprising when both values are close together, the CS will be a good predictor of the UCS and the occurence of the UCS will therefore not be surprising and has beeen shown that conditioning is most rapid when (λ - V) has a large value i.e a large deficit and therefore more surprising leads to faster conditioning

Answer 52

suggestion that food not reinforcer for pressing lever but instead that contingency built between food and lever so keep pressing food-tone but not when go to magazine group of unpaired (food when tone not) and omission (magazine entry during tone cancels food) found that the omission group gradually learned to stop going in the magazine, showing instrumental conditioning over pavlovian with guinea pig, left head turn = food after buzzer then learn that right head turn now = food so able to perform opposite action pavlovian conditining gone against as buzzer maintains same relationship with reward, so 'natural' left head turn response not changing due to pavlovian conditioning

Answer 53

press lever for sucrose pellets devalued group given Lithium chloride on the same day so association betwene pellets and illness non-devalued group given LiCl next day so not associated found devalued group pressed lever less as don't want food anymore also, when overtrained to press lever for pellets over 500 not 100 trials found that devalued group pressing lever lots as opposed to before due to overtraining making lever pressing a reflex/habit also, if pellets actually presented then would still press lever lots but wouldn't eat them (showing habit not want of food) so suggestion that 2 kinds of IL: animal has knwoledge of consequneces of its actions on the outcome (trained) and S->R reflex supports habitual responding (overtrained)

Answer 54

instrumental training: that in light, lever = sucrose water and chain = pellet and vice verse when tone sucrose water then paired with LiCl when light on in testing, will mainly pull chain and when tone will mainly press lever as aware these responses will result in desired outcome of pellets not the water

Answer 55

trained rats with chain = pellet and lever = sucrose when made thirsty, should press lever to get water if understand actions for expected outcome but didn't find difference initially then, found that they did prefer the sucrose water response (lever) when animal taught that sucorse water is preferrable when in a thirsty state before the test (one reinforcer more valuable in certain state) so again, demonstration of understanding of response needed to achieve desired outcome not reflex actions (different types of instrumental learning) going beyond simple association as combining knowledge of what outcome valuable in certain drive state and which action to produce to give outcome

Answer 56

1. successive discrimination - present one of the stimuli and see how the animal responds - so present one stimuli at a time 2. simultaneous discrimination - present 2 stimuli and see which the animal approaches, easier than successive as can compare stimuli when they occur together e. g S+ is blue circle for tone but S+ is yellow circle for light 3. conditional discrimination - reinforce different responses in the presence of different stimuli apparatus types: discrimination boxes, Lashley's jumping stands, use of computer displays etc.

Answer 57

Hanson: peck greeny yellow light to get grain (S+) but similar, more yellow light gives time out so less food (S-). found control group with no S- peaked at the S+ colour however, when S- introduced, peak shifted over near S+ (past it), but further away from S-, and also higher and sharper peak Spence's explanation of peak-shift: S+ produces excitatory and S- produces inhibitory generalisation gradients. the net responding of the animal is interaction between the 2 (one minus the other). so peak shift occurs when e.g inhibitory gradient low but excitatory high, so difference great and therefore a peak shift in this part of the new curve, this difference is greater than at S+ as it is closer in relation to S- than the new stimulus prediction that peak shift works best with similar S+ and S- and that shift is greatest in this case, is founded modern variant using Rescorla Wagner has proven very successful at modelling peak shift

Answer 58

if a discrimination between S+ (one stimulus) and S- (another stimulus) is trained, and then S' is tested vs the S+, S' may be chosen so refers to choosing a different stimulus over the one trained can be explained via gap between excitatory and inhibitory bigger, so preference for new stimulus over S+ (to get away from S-) so transposition to new stimulus 2 curves on a graph, an inhibitory one with S- at the centre and an excitatory one with S+ at the centre, these overlap and the gap between them is greater for S' than S+ (similar explanation to that of peak shift)

Answer 59

training an easy discrimination on a dimension can help the animal acquire a difficult one, more than simply practicing that difficult discrimination even when total training times are equated explained via: interacting excitatory and inhibitory gradients so harder when gradients closer and easier when further away. when at H+ (the hard condition), gap between gradients much larger when previously done an easy discrimination whereas gap between gradients when learning hard discrimination only is much smaller

Answer 60

whether effective stimulus enabling learning to respond to one stimulus rather than another (discrimination) is absolute or relative e.g does rat learn to respond to black>white or darker>lighter? so transposition of discrimination to different values on the stimulus dimension should uncover which one

Answer 61

whether learning is a gradual process (continuity - Spence) or all-or-none (non-continuity - Krechevsky & Lashley) made harder when realising a continuity account can be made to look like non-continuity (e.g stages of progression) and vice versa

Answer 62

Spence, 1936 discrimination of absolute stimuli theory: learning occurs gradually smooth generalisation gradient around the stimuli to which training has occurred and excitatory generalisation around S+ and inhibitory around S- (internal response tendencies) observed response tendency predicted from monotonic transformation of the algebraic sum of excitatory and inhibitory generalisaed response tendencies (E-I) this theory can predict transposition, peak-shift and trasnfer along a continuum

Answer 63

discrimination of relative stimuli theory: learning occurs suddenly Krechevsky, 1932 - rats form hypotheses about what is to be discriminated and when they get the right hypothesis, the problem is solved instantly e.g left or right then changes to colour difference, which turns out to be correct so instantly know everything predicts position habits, no impact of pre-solution reversal and transfer along a continuum and fits into modern cognitive ideas about selective attention biggest support from predicting lack of impact or pre-solution reversal: swapping the S+ from one stimulus to another mid way through learning, and a control group sticking with the S+, found both groups arrive at 'final solution' of 100% correct at the same time (so pre-solution reversal making no difference) continuity theorists wouldn't expect/predict this

Answer 64

discrimination involves both learning what stimulus dimension to attend to and what stimulus values on that dimension are correct Sutherland and Mackintosh, 1971 - attentional learning is slower to reach aymptote than response learning - attention to multiple stimuli but increased attention to one dimension means less to another (limited) predicts overtraining reversal effect and impact of overtraining on the relative ease of intradimensional shift and extradimensional shift advocates make a good case that multiple factors involved in discrimination learning BUT weaker than either of the simple theories (continuity or non-continuity) as by putting everything into a theory, makes it harder to falsify it

Answer 65

1. perceptual categories e.g all cats - abstraction = prototype 2. logical categories e.g all groups in 4s - abstraction = concept when perceptual e.g cats, animals able to discriminate between this and an absense/something else whereas when logical e.g discriminating between an artifical group of 4s and 3s, only animal that came close is a parrot

Answer 66

birds have: - cone-rich retinas - desnse receptor matrix over a wide retinal area - multiple foveas - classes of cone differ by oil-droplets filtering light, not visual pigment - more than 3 types of cone - spectral brightness response and discrimination - high flicker fusion frequency - ectostriatum rather than visual cortex *richer visual representation of the world*

Answer 67

* two foveas in each eye, one forward (binocular) and one lateral * the two visual systems have different functions and psychophysical responses * very wide range of view * U/V light detected * plane of polarisation of light discriminated *so when performing visual experiments on pigeons, they don't necessarily see things how we do*

Answer 68

learned to peck in the presence of a pic of a person and withhold when pic not a person stimuli (holiday slides) varied greatly in no. of people, posture, clothing etc. after successful learning, transfer trials show correct response to new photos i.e above average pecking when person in photo (so not merely rote learning of the individual pictures and their pos.neg association with food) 'higher order concept formation in the pigeon' and also been shown for ecologically valid concepts for that species e.g conspecifics, prey etc.

Answer 69

1. rote learning or absolute discrimination - claimed to be ruled out by successful transfer to new instances but what if there was also stimulus generalisation 2. multiple linear feature model - predicts a super releaser (prototype) effect that doesn't always ocur - often hard to demonstrate control by multiple features - seems that animals may use this when lots to remember so find common features to aid discrimination (those that are unique to the rewarded exemplars gain associative strength) 3. configural (exemplar) models - seems that animals may use this approach to discrimination when only a few slides shown so remember whole configuration

Answer 70

simple - discriminate between 2 things (S+ and S-, which animals shouldn't respond to as bad result) which are similar and on the same dimension e.g different tones complex- discriminting between categories, not merely a singular S+ and a singular S-

Answer 71

the generalisation gradient is more peaked when 2 stimuli to discriminate between as opposed to being broader when stimulus on its own

Answer 72

had artificial stimuli where S+ and S- overlapped by around 50% whereas near N+ and N- were further away from their respective opposites and far don't overlap at all with opposites found good peak shift whereby N+ (near S+ but further away from S-) was where the peak occured whereas negative peak shift at N- as further away from S+

Answer 73

when simultaneous: found shift to near discrimination of S+ (darker shade) over S+ itself, so choosing a darker shade and ratio was .75 and in far discrimination, still choosing, more than 50% of the time, to opt for the even darker one over the previously selected 'near' one when successive: still going for near over S+ (so transposed to new discrimination) but then when far, drops down to 50:50 so not choosing one over the other

Answer 74

e.g japanese people find 'L' and 'R' hard to discriminate between when learning the english language so play them exaggerated versions of these letters (easy discrimination task) then become better at discriminating in naturalistic task (harder task) due to the theory of transfer along a continuum

Answer 75

delay of reinforcement - learning impaired if gap between stimuli/response and reinforcer discrimination - total impairment when 10 sec delay between stimuli delayed reaction - delay between stimulus and possibility to respond in discrimination taste avoidance learning - longer delays than above studies ^^^ are tolerated in these conditions

Answer 76

1. proactive interference - from info acquired prior to target (info given prior to target disrupts its attention) 2. retroactive intereference - from info acquired after target (new with old) (forgetting of info due to being followed by something distracting) 3. decay - due to passage of time

Answer 77

* doesn't necessarily require recognition of identity of sample and comparison stimuli * - oddity from sample - choose comparison which doesn't match - symbolic matching to sample - comparison stimuli are not the same as the sample, and subject must learn 'code' connecting them - multiple samples - test of recognition memory or a list recognition task

Answer 78

some trials were ordinary DMTS and others where 2 samples are presented either 10 or 0 secs apart animal must respond on basis of last sample result that performance in 0 sec condition, when one sample immediately followed by other, is worse so good evidence for proactive intereference in DMTS as memory of old stimuli proactively interfers with the memory of the new stimuli

Answer 79

some trials, the brightness with which chamber illuminated is increased during delay between sample and comparison result that performance in increased illumination condition worse fairly good evidence (not as good as for proactive) for retroactive intereference in DMTS as new interfering with old however, the changing of illumination may not be affecting memory and may be more to do with e.g arousal

Answer 80

food released from foodwell at the end of the arm which lures rat into running down that arm then back to centre free choice where run freely to any arms: may not be so much to do with memory as stereotyped response patterns in animal e.g after exiting arms take the one to the left, however, high accuracy of visiting unvisited arms supported by: randomly chosen arms (2 alternative forced choices): given choice between 2, one novel and one visited, and required to only choose one (novel is the correct one), which supports the ability of rats to choose correct arm

Answer 81

8 arms partitioned into A and B, where initial exposure to B arms and study phase 2 hours later of arms A after 2 more hours, test phase of free choice with all 8 arms (A+B) with choices of B rewarded findings: A control group (didn't get initial interference phase of B) performed better than those who experienced both conditions conclusion: proactive interference effect exhibited when initial exposure to B arms (old memories of the B arms interfering with new memory of the A arms)

Answer 82

8 arms of radial maze partitioned into A and B intial exposure to B followed by running 3 similar mazes in different rooms to test maze then returned to initial test maze to choose A set of arms findings: performance in choosing A arms worse than controls (who had experienced same delay between initial phase and test, but not run the intervening mazes so no new memories formed to interfere) conclusion: demonstration of retroactive interefernce due to new information from different rooms to test maze, interfering with old information regarding the initial test maze

Answer 83

forced to either 1,3,5or7 arms of maze then given choice between visited and an unvisited arm results plotted in terms of backward serial position (1=last arm visited so same delay between study and test in all conditions and 2=second last visited) so for 3 arm condition, 3 would be first arm visited (as backwards) findings: as constant run rate in maze, backward curve superimposed for 3,5,7 (e.g highest error % when visiting their last few arms e.g 6+7 for 7 arm group) one arm condition to show that results due to delay and not number of arms visited: forced to one arm then confined in centre of maze for same length of time taken to run 7 arms, so if delay all that matters then performance should be similar to backward position 7 (last arm visited) in 7 arm condition BUT if no. of arm visits critical factor then should be similar to backward position 1 (first arm visited) as only visited 1 findings: performance the same as backward position 7 (delay all that matters hence evidence for decay)

Answer 84

retrospective - remembering the arm just visited memory of past events prospective - remembering the arms you have yet to visit memory for what's to come so animals can definitely use retrospective encoding

Answer 85

found that animals made more mistakes when blue and orange are the sample i.e give the correct response for oragnge to the blue sample and vice versa (actually incorrect) due to having comparison of similar angles of image (0 degrees so horiztonal and 12.5 degrees) but make less confusions on trials where sample is red, despite confusion with orange expected (as similar colours of stimuli) suggesting use of a prospective code as memory for whats to come i.e similar angles for the comparisons getting confused as opposed to memory for past events i.e colours of stimul getting confused

Answer 86

rats forced to either 2,4or6 arms of maze then taken out for 15 mins then tested on a visited vs an unvisited arm findings: more errors made in 4 arm over 6 arm and 2 arm condition also, serial position effect where arms entered early in a trial were more likely to be incorrectly revisited after the delay conclusion: argument that this indicates a switch from a retrospective code to a prospective code at the appropriate list length explanation: for the 2 arm condition, used retrospective knowledge of these 2 arms visited to guide choice when making decisions about arm not visited and for the 6 arm condition, used prospective knowledge regarding the 2 arms not visited to determine which arm choice to choose for novel (reflected in these 2 conditions having similar reduced % errors compared to the 4 arm condition whom use of either coding still resulted in having to remember 4 arms rather than 2 (un)visited)

Answer 87

consolidation - initial short term memory trace is transformed into a more durable trace for the long term several types of trauma prevent learning IF they occur SHORTLY after a stimulus or reward e.g ECS (shock), sudden temp change, drugs etc. so after learning shuttle response to avoid shock (in shuttle box in animals by shifting to other side) giving a shock after training will disrupt performance after a delay, due to disrupting consolidation processes whereas if shockgiven after delay or just before test, won't be as effective in disrupting performance

Answer 88

as in 'reactivation' studies, memories apparently 'lost' are successfully retrieved following a reminder treatment so if memory has not been consolidated into the long-term memory, and hence is 'lost', how can it later be retrieved - argument against consolidation theory

Answer 89

2 categories of A and B and 3 features in this category leads to categorisation accordingely into this category however, when one of the features reversed so comes to be a feature of the opposite category, animal didn't change judgement about other stimuli despite these 2 being reversed - pigeon seeing independent features not a whole concept (Rescorla-Wagner can account for this) whereas in humans, when one of the features are reversed, will view all stimuli as being reversed and representing that other category so processing concept as a whole

Answer 90

if grapes appear then after short or no delay, have to peck grape stimuli and not duck then once learned, transferred to novel stimuli of blue and yellow circle found that have above chance selection on first trial, suggesting they may be abler to transfer 'rules' of the task limited as an argument for concept formation as may be a sense of familiarity that leads to success in this task as see duck then peck duck due to familiar and recent

Answer 91

distal - long range so doesn't change orientation when we move around proximal - short range so changes orientation when we move round e.g now behind us egocentric - relative to the individual e.g in front or behind you allocentric - relative to the environment e.g in same place in frame of reference to room - like cog map beacons - pavlovian approach so reflexive response to stimulus e.g go towards when associated with reward landmarks - used as a reference

Answer 92

solve this maze by using the external landmarks rotation tests and landmark deletion/re-arrangement studies all point ot this conclusion

Answer 93

solve this maze by using the external landmarks (not beacons) rotation tests and landmark deletion/re-arrangement studies all point ot this conclusion rotation test: forced to 4 arms, then maze rotated through 45 degrees (or landmarks are rotated) then choose between unvisited, with food at end, but in old location of visited OR visited, no food, in unvisited location rats tend to choose visited arm in unvisited location, so using landmark info about place they hadn't been (whereas in control where maze didn't rotate, would mainly go to unvisited arm) Suzuki et al, 1980: discrete landmarks at each arm and when re-arranged, dramatically worsened performance between study and test so using configurations of landmarks to define locations in the radial maze, rather than using them as beacons to mark specific locations close by

Answer 94

O'Keefe et al, 1978: suggested animals use map to navigate and mechanisms for constructing and using this in hippocampus found single cell recording in the hippocampus shows 'place cells' which fire when a rat is in a particular place in the maze - not directional cells as firing in a certain place whichever direction it came from to walk over that place (so neuronal architecture gives basis to form a map) shown that removing 2/4 landmarks then place cells still firing but mainly stops when 0/4 landmarks left available and lesions disrupt performance in the Morris water maze supported through being larger relative to total brain size in: bird families storing food compared to those that don't and in scatter hoarding species birds with experienced cache recovery homing pigeons london taxi-drivers than control subjects SO implication that if you have a lot of stored sptial relations then hippocampus will be larger

Answer 95

raised off the floor and open so animal can see around the room rat put in pool at random locations along the side, then swims to the platform which is somewhere in the pool (firstly in roundabout fashion and later more directly) and can use landmarks A+B to go straight to it those with hippocampal lesions are impaired in this task, as take longer to find the platform and not able to swim straight to it, just swim aimlessly around until they find it (unlike controls) and when reversible lesions, lose spatial navigation but when start s to wear off, able to swim straight to platform again

Answer 96

method: 2 groups trained in water maze to find platform on basis of different sets of landmarks (ABC or ABCX) landmark X added to ABC in first group and more training given what testing: tests with ABC and ABX reveal how well animal has learned to use X to find platform in conjunction with other landmarks findings: blocking group better when landmarks involved just ABC as learnt these alone when ABX available, blocking group much worse as poorer ability to use X due to it being blocked by prior conditioning conclusions: cog map hypothesis expects that blocked group will not do worse as easier to learn about X when map as can just fit it in however, more akin to learning seen in conditioning experiments

Answer 97

migrate 2000km from feeding to nest sites thought to use orientation and intensity of earth's magnetic field - a bearing map but contributions of insticnt and individual learning unclear

Answer 98

use multiple systems: - sun compass rewiring knowledge of time of day so when think seunset is dawn, will fly the opposite direction - magnetic compass - infrasound and other beacons - olfaction (smell) - route marks e.g motorways as will fly along motorway direction to find way home - proximal landmarks at start and end of flight - unable to be precise about home when wearing contact lenses blurring vision of these landmarks * must all be learned *

Answer 99

make numerous caches of food and recover them months later - with how environment looks different at cache and recovery time caches cannot be marked or they would be pilfered so need exceptional spatial memory Macdonald - squirrels could recover nuts in 2m circle 2 months later Kamil - use both absolute and relative cues and both distance and direction from landmarks, but direction more salient

Answer 100

pigeons learned by rote whether images of trees related to positive or negative able to do this up to 640 found that birds trained with 320 slides were better at giving answers after 2 years since learning, than group being newly trained in discrimination - known as savings measure

Answer 101

could remember and base judgement on: - WHAT they stored - recover worms > peanuts as preferred food - WHERE they stored - WHEN they stored - if stored more than 4 hours before then worms not desirable anymore as perishable so will opt for peanuts instead

Answer 102

train them to run a simple maze to get food from a certain point route taken in training then removed but learns to take a different route to get food - learning where food is relative to starting position so able to take short-cut to get there however, put bright light above goal position (food) so bright light could have = beacon for animal so just running towards that

Answer 103

have to choose to go either left or right to get food may go correct way due to: smell - using olfactory senses odour - able to smell themselves and route they took before pavlovian - learn to love one side instrumental - learn to turn left map - remembering location may use any of these, depending on which is easiest information to reach goal extinction: with no food but odour may linger swap the arms: then following odour trail will take them to the 'wrong' side flipping 180 degrees: differentiating response based on place and instrumental learning (will turn left which will lead them to wrong side) when landmarks available: removing closest one which may serve as beacon, then found that still going to correct arm (landmark not singular beacon relying on pavlovian conditioning)

Answer 104

found he would tap foot the correct number of times to solve maths puzzles however, found that when people in the room unsure of answer, and indeed when no one in the room and questions given on loud speaker, then wouldn't get answer and in latter case, would keep tapping his foot so not doing the sums himself but instead gaging people's reactions to his tapping, alerting him when to stop

Answer 105

1. gradual - quantitative learning 2. sharp - qualitative learning (MacPhail's null hypothesis) - no difference in way all vertebrates learn and their cognitive abilities - but different rates of learning in different species in different situations - humans and language trained chimps able to go beyond this due to language use (and due to contextual variables giving them similar tasks to humans, which favours their abilities over other species) - support from: simple forms of learning e.g classical conditioning take place in the same way and rate in all vertebrates and some invertebrates e.g sensitisation to shocks by withdrawing from touch in aplysia

Answer 106

suggested that giving animals a task they can't solve so not showing what they can do would work out solution if they could but not given a chance

Answer 107

Kohler - suggested chimps performed period of reflection then completed solution in one go - but anecdotal evidence Epstein - bird moving box to food but took months to learn to do this Kohler would argue that Epstein didn't demonstrate same results as him as what he found was 'straight away' but argument that didn't know what chimps were doing before as boxes were in enclosure before - so merely demonstrating that animal could learn to perform this (instrumental learning vs insight)

Answer 108

used as a method for testing rule use in animals dog should go backwards out of fence to get food but instead lie down next to fence (not solving problem) but when fence made transparent then do better as can't see the food, so learn to take the short path to it, whereas when they can see the food, will take longer path so has to learn that shorter path still leads to food (instrumental learning which gets to food sooner overcoming pavlovian approach to getting food)

Answer 109

if able to choose correct side to push food out of tube on the first attempt at each transfer then evidence for insight - figuring out problem and executing solution in one go when first given task then 50:50 but then find one side more successful than other however, when transfer test via reversing successful side, will mainly get it wrong so limited evidence for transfer

Answer 110

selectivity - found that crows are able to choose the correct length stick to complete task by getting food out of tube construction - choosing most suitable wire to curve under bucket handle and pick it up - learning over tie when given straight piece of wire, bent wire into hook and picked up BUT only one crow that could do this and all others couldn't so limited evidence for insight

Answer 111

suggests that have notion, based on trace strength, of how long ago a stimulus was last encountered (recency) so in matching to sample, if learnt to select the most recent one, then it will show transfer to novel stimuli

Answer 112

have to learn to peck at one colour compared to another 9/10 times then will reverse to other colour, where will stop perseveration to original colour and transfer to the other instead, and keeps repeating after several reversals, chimps will make one mistake then immediately shift to other and stick (win-stay/lose-shift strategy) most animals get a bit faster but not to the level of chimps suggestion that just become better at attending to a colour

Answer 113

once animal gets 9/10 correct in first discrimination then move onto a different set which may have the same colours then have to learn to discirminate based on object found that chimps can get it down to one error again and other animals again get faster at solving each problem argument that don't need rule to solve this - learning that recently seen cue is good if just obtained reinforcer but bad if it hasnt (conditional discrimination)

Answer 114

given sufficient information to make an inference about stimuli found that, when shown that B beats C and that C beats D, monkeys will choose B however, can be explained through B having a stronger association with A, which has the highest associative strength for reward and therefore B has a stronger association with reward than D tried again with linking 2 separate rows of inferences together by A-E and F-J then pairing E with reward over F (to join rows together) then find that B picked over G and D preferred over I (despite having same place in each respective continuum) can be explained via linking E and F and associating E more greatly with reward, as choose B over G because G close to F and D over I as D close to E (greater association with reward)

Answer 115

e.g puppy to a dog is like a lamb is to ... animals mainly can't do this however, language trained chimp able to use symbols for 'same' and 'different' appropriately e.g using can opener to open closed can over paintbrush strong piece of evidence that animals (this chimp) can use rules)

Answer 116

1. observational conditioning - e.g seeing fear reaction to snake from other monkeys then fear of snakes developed 2. stimulus or local enhancement - e.g demonstrators behaviour drawing observers attention to location/stimulus e. g pecking through bottle tops not imitation as drawing attention to bottletop which increases chance of pecking through it, which is reinforced when receive cream 3. tool use - e.g anvils to crack nuts 4. teaching - 'intentional facilitation of learning, with costs for the teacher' - little evidence for intentional teaching, just behaviour helping young e.g directing attention somewhere 5. imitation - copying another animal evidence for true imitation inconclusive in animals e.g bottletop pecking = enhancement, potato washing in macaques = enhancement (spread too slow and increased attention to potatoes) and in rats, due to scent

Answer 117

communication = intention to send a message to the receiver - has to have a reliable effect on the receivers behaviour - can be between different species

Answer 118

referential communication - messages give varied info about matters external to sender and receiver e.g alarm calls where make different calls for different animals and conspecifics will look at the sky etc., 'dance language' also releaser/FAP communication - no decision, direct instruction to the receiver

Answer 119

taught sign language and convinced could form sentences as would sign for 'more banana' and not 'banana more' however, on film it was spotted that he was just using the same signs his tutors used and they were mumbling with signs so was copying/responding to them so didn't acquire language as not generating his own sentences for Washoe - signed 'water bird' when saw novel stimulus of swan on water so nuanced utterance generated, however, was repeating signs for water and bird in different orders (so not a novel utterance)

Answer 120

understanding intentions of the individual to be deceived - perhaps therefore requiring some kind of theory of mind dishonest signals might derive from operant conditioning e.g noticing that rustling in bushes draws other animals from food so get all to themselves, so next time may look sideways so animals run away to investigate to get more food again

Answer 121

level 0: unintentional - the result is a 'windfall gain' level 1: activities apparently directed towards a goal can only be achieved if receiver is deceived (this is learned, not understood) level 2: mindreading involving the attribution of intentions to another animal through infering what they can and cannot see so attributing mental states to others (children by age 5)

Answer 122

Povinelli where one human can see inside box and other can't (due to various reasons e.g blindfold over mouth or eyes) found chimps didn't perform well on this: can't select correct observer unless trained to do so over a number of trials (children will do this first time and show transfer) AND fail to transfer to novel but conceptually related stimuli (require training again on this new task) Call + Tomasello communicator can see where food is hidden, so points to correct box to enable chimps to know where food is, they point there as well when communicator doesn't see hider moving side of food, when they point incorrectly, chimps will still point to that side, so unable to grasp concept of false beliefs * SO altogether, little evidence of theory of mind in animals other than humans *

Answer 123

flavour preference - believed to be teaching but not as can smell flavour of water on rats breath, so will prefer that flavour due to becoming familiar with it and noting the other conspecific hasn't become ill meerkats - actions of remaining adult close to teaching bites off stinger of scorpion and gives to children to make it safer for them to learn what to do with a prey item and cost that could have eaten scorpion (costs outweigh benefits necessary to be teaching) BUT benefit of dealing with active youngsters so may not be teaching as pay-off may be more beneficial than costs

Answer 124

blocking: training with one CS then addition of new CS. when this new CS tested alone then little response as reduced learning of association due to conditioning of intial CS and US together blocking this ∆V=ab(λ - V) e.g train noise until predictive value (V) is .75 then addition of new CS will have a predictive valye of 0 so equation would be: 0.5(1-(0.75+0)) = 0.125 so V for noise (old stimulus) is now 0.875 (0.125+0.75) and for light is 0.125 (0 + 0.125) on the next trial, there will be no change in associative strength (∆V) as the V is now 1 (0.875+0.125) when adding both predictive values of the light and noise so equation is: 0.5(1-1) = 0 (no change in associative strength, meaning CSs perfectly predicts the outcome so no more change in strength as no additional learning necessary) therefore, blocking occurs due to limited associative strength left for the second stimulus due to the first being trained up to 0.75

Answer 125

overshadowing: stimuli preventing each other from perfectly predicting the US so overshadowing of some sort would acquire more associative strength when conditioned alone than together ∆V=ab(λ - V) trial 1: conditioning both CS at same time so 0.5(1-0) so each get a V of 0.5 trial 2: 0.5(1-(0.5+0.5)) = 0 so each remain with predictive strength of 0.5 so both acquire half of total predictive value so together can explain predicted outcome perfectly SO overshadowing due to conditioning in a compound

Answer 126

- combination of psychology and physiology | * methods and theories of these 2 fields are combined to try and explain how biology gives rise to psychology*

Answer 127

gave the first reductionist (mechanistic) account of movement instead of animism (unable to be tested unlike his theory) fountains driven by hydrolic pressure and statue would move due to pressure changes 'balloonist' theory of neural communication/motor control - e.g heat withdrawal reflex, heat causes fluid in pipes to expand, changing pressure which is transmitted to brain which channels this to correct location and causes muscles to move due to change in pressure (using statues as examples)

Answer 128

take a complex system e.g human body and extract one element and study this to determine some rules generalise understood process to broader context e. g pavlovian conditioning - salivate and deduce principle of associative learning - reductionism - then generalised to all forms of learning across different organisms and systems

Answer 129

neural conductance found if static electricity makes contact with nerve in leg, then leg would twitch (despite frog being cut apart) could have been heat/hydrolic pressure or electricity electricity - Volta's battery which made same leg twitch without the creaton of heat so isolating the effects of electricity

Answer 130

Golgi's staining applied industrial chemistry processes to brain, found dye would stick to cells which enable discrimination between them, combination with microscope enabled vision of individual cells saw repeated pattern of organised structure (so can see communication and different functional roles of cells)

Answer 131

Muller how can the same electrical impulse give rise to different sensory experience doctrine - diff parts of brain using same mechanisms but separated in functions, giving rise to diff sensory features

Answer 132

Flourens first to be giving lesions to rats functionality - cut cerebellum then lose balance etc. and brain stem then would die as it controls all physiology

Answer 133

diagnostic and clinical characterisations of those with disorders (behaviour missing) then when dead, would see where damage lay in the brain then perform correlation between these Broca's area in frontal lobe - impairments in ability to produce speech, despite accurate comprehension (language tending to be on left side of brain)

Answer 134

Fritsch & Hitzig dogs had skull removed and would electrode brain to see which parts of body moved found when stimulate different parts of motor strip then different parts of body moved (somatotopic path) - Broca's area is just to the left of where tongue and mouth is in motor strip - so why deficits in speech sensorimotor strip: sensory part - if touch that then cells light up in this region motor part - on opposite side of strip has the same somatotopic organisation

Answer 135

clinical presentations: uncooperative behaviour of the hand, and manipulating objects without the patient's will so autonomous behaviour - 50:50 as to which hand it will be neural presentations: typically arises from strokes lesions in right hemi and in anterior (front) corpus callosum (large fibre bundle connecting hemis where all parts have fibres leading to CC) - lesions of anterior corpus callosum disconnect the two frontal cortical regions so AHS due to disconnection between the premotor and primary motor areas between the 2 hemis - descending pathways from the motor cortices remain intact (not going through CC) enabling control of muscles going through striatum (between S and T there's the basal ganglia which is involved in decision-making, movement etc.) - to thalamus (fibres cross contralaterally so left side controlled by right side of brain) - to midbrain - to pons - to cerebellum (turning jerking movement into smooth) - to medulla - to spine - somatotropic organisation in motor cortex preserved in descending motor pathway, so specific cortical regions control specific body parts and neurons for diff areas are in diff spinal vertebrae *CC damaged but descending motor path in tact, mismatch between conscious part and other side, so loss of consious awareness of activity in the hand corresponding to side of brain damage*

Answer 136

1. that some species are more evolved than others - all have been evolving for exactly the same amount of time 2. that evolution implies improvement - complexity HAS come about through evolution, BUT evolution doesn't always = greater complexity - trying to fit an organism into its ecological niche, not more human like 3. that evolution leads in the direction of being human-like consequences: - anthropomorphism - assuming animal cognition is like human cognition (just not as good) - anthropocentrism - interpretation of 'advanced' to be 'more like us'

Answer 137

no difference in cognitive abilties across vertebrates language gives advantage contextual cues may explain advances seen in chimps (better able to understand how to test cognition in these species) support: conditioning and sensitisation in Aplysia: repsonding weakly to touch on siphon (withdrawing siphon and gill) but when paired with shock, response more vigorous (connection strength from siphon to gill increases due to facilitation by interneuron occuring at same time as pathway activation) conditional discrimination in Aplysia: learned conditional discrimination where in one context, rod and shock paired and in other not, so bigger response of withdrawal in the context where paired (light bowl with lemony water and dark container with turbulence) goldfish unable to learn discrimination when food reward presented behind them, however when presented in front of them, learned discrimination - as some animals require immediate reward presentation for learning to occur (contextual variables to consider) dolphins could form s with auditory but not visual stimuli

Answer 138

* making sure everything except learning is equivalent between animals of different species - Bitterman : control by systematic variation of the confounding factors - but hard to explore all these variations (do lots of variations of same test and if one animal consistently faster, then may be more intelligent) - use comparable species e.g pigeons and corvids : found that jackdaws showed transfer (group training on matching to sample did better in novel, similar test than group doing conditional discrimination) however pigeons didn't show transfer but did show faster learning - may be that jackdaws utilise a recency strategy, enabling greater transfer when similar task performed but that pigeons learn that particular arrangement should be responded to in a certain way, enabling faster learning but no transfer - language vs non-language trained chimps (main evidence for higher order intelligence): ones with language could solve same/different tasks (indicating whether 2 stimuli same/diff or indicating which stimuli same/diff) but non-language couldn't (but both could solve tasks where one object shown followed by either the same or different as can use recency for this) - hard to explain superiority of language trained in terms of contextual variables (same species) and recency effects (all stimuli equally recent as presented at once) - so language may enable diff cog abilities to succeed in task

Answer 139

1. giving uni physics majors diagrams of curved tubes and asking the path of the ball once it leaves these tubes - demonstrate systematic misunderstanding of the physical principles involved, 'naive physics' (McCloskey's theory) - or simply that relying on appearance as opposed to underlying physics rules which determine the correct answers 2. asking what the path of a skateboarder, at the top of a ramp coming in at speed wil be on his way to the ground with a U ramp underneath him - majority will answer straight down (direction of ramp) as this is their experience and what they have observed, however, according to physics correct answer is actually falling forward 3. pull yoyo towards you when string side down and then again with string side up - find that when string down, individuals will use rules of rotation to expect yoyo to go in other direction (from experience), despite the underlying physics rules of pulling an object then it will always come towards you - when presentation changes, and the string is at the top so rotation dictates the yoyo will be pulled towards you, individuals get it correct *people basing answers to these questions on their experience of the surface features of these problems (relying on observable features), so how it looks rather than the underlying physics*

Answer 140

1. constraint relaxation - being able to change matchstick maths puzzle from type A constraint of numbers to type B where involves the symbols in the equation 2. re-encoding - hammer string to walls and have to bring together, realising hammer can be used as a weight to aid this as opposed to its original role as a hammer 3. addition of new info - when one analogy given before another, then able to apply elements to the previously unsolvable one (fortress then radiation examples) * humans poor at spontaneous use of analogy and requires mapping of structure from source domain to target domain*

Answer 141

conceptual analogical reasoning problem (choosing key for lock then they choose can opener for paint but then when pen and paper will choose paintbrush for paint) found that a language learned chimp called sarah could get these right and by using 2 versions with the same alternatives, rules out having a preference for one stimulus (associative explanation ruled out) so this chimp can go past relying on appearance and show analogical learning

Answer 142

- both have access to method relying on appearance of things (associative) - chimps, except those exposed to extensive language training e.g sarah, don't move past this form of problem solving - whereas humans can, with difficulty, solve problems on basis of the underlying reality and logic (but tend not to e.g physics majors going off superficial and not underlying reality)

Answer 143

did spatial version of serial reversal learning where had to either turn left or right for food found that they learned very quickly, similarly fast to chimps, but this may be due to this task suiting sheep and is a specific task that they can do well on

Answer 144

bioavailability determined by: 1. route of administration - determines how fast the drug enters the blood plasma 2. dose 3. rate - some drugs water or lipid soluble (effects of heroin faster than morphine as more lipid soluble) 4. absorption (different properties of membranes enable drug passage or not) 5. elimination (breakdown and removal of compound) 6. kinetics (change in bioavailability over time - route of administration has big impact on this)

Answer 145

preserves the internal enviro of the brain screens out most foreign agents if less than 4 nanometres and especially if fat soluble, will passively diffuse across blood brain barrier

Answer 146

measures psychoactive effectiveness of a drug axis: dose of the drug against its measured effect shape: when dose increases, response increases (output of neurons) not linear as cells can't fire at an unlimited rate behaviour capped at top of S as neuron firing rates are also capped (plateaus) - effectiveness plateaus where increasing dose no longer increases the effect ED 50 (effective dose 50): dose at which drug produces 50% of maximum effect

Answer 147

the psychoactive drugs act on receptors on neurons, which then open ligan-gated ion channels, changing the electrical potential of the membrane changing the psychological experience agonists - acts on receptor perfectly and produces/facilitates effect (e.g direct agonist when attaches to binding site and opens ion channels mimicing effect of neurotransmitter and indirect when same effect but different site) antagonist - only partially fits so able to block effect of endogenous neurotransmitter (and hence prevent th postsynaptic effects), producing a behavioural effect in this way (e.g direct antagonist when attach to binding site, preventing ion channels opening, so NT unable to bind and open channels) inverse agonist - binds to receptor and makes ion channel reverse direction, pumping ions the other way

Answer 148

major acetlycholine projections are from the pedunculopontine nucleus (deep brain stimulation of this in patients with Parkinson's produced sudden onset sleep and dreaming) and the nucleus Basalis of Maynert there are other minor cholinergic systems it increases the signal to noise ratio in the firing rate to the specific stimulus to which the neuro is tuned e.g when seeing bar going in certain direction, some cells will prefer this and fire more, which is heightened when given acetylcholine (increases sensitivity to preferred stimuli) prolongs presence of NT in synaptic cleft and involvedin all muscular movement

Answer 149

(noradrenaline) cells bodies are located in the locus coeruleus (in brain stem) and project broadly across the whole brain this system is thought to play 2 roles in attention: 1. baseline LC activation = alertness (pupil dilation corresponding with LC neuron activation) 2. phasic LC activation = attention to goal-relevant stimuli, with oddball stimuli (e.g black square amongst white squares) producing spikes in LC activation AND the P300 cortical activation in all cells role in vigilance and enhances readiness to act if signal is detected

Answer 150

5HT cell bodies originate in Ralphe nuclei in the brain stem and project to the spine, cerebellum, sub-cortex and cortex 5HT plays a role in depression and mood - antidepressant medications increase 5HT via different mechanisms

Answer 151

50% of brain cells use this responsible for changing synaptic weight (reduces the threshold of excitation) and thus learning (incl. error correction) on the glutamate synapse: - AMPA and kainate - fast excitatory transmission from pre to post synaptic - amount of electricity determinedby no. of these receptors - NMDA - synaptic weight change by modifying the number of AMPA receptors - increase strength of synapse depending on how much of this available

Answer 152

major role in inhibition - caps the upper limit of cell firing rate through Renshaw cells (project onto GABA interneuron which will inhibit the cell, and the more activation, the more it will inhibit itself, capping it) when 2 excitatory pathways, the one with most activation will inhibit the other more (all-or-nothing) epilepsy: failure of GABA inhibition to constrain excitatory loops in the brain - so most medications for epilepsy act to increase GABA inhibition, or decrease glutamate excitation

Answer 153

inhibit transmission of pain signals in peripheral nervous system, and the CNS released from the pituitary form part of the fight or flight stress response, and act on presynaptic opiod autoreceptors on pain signalling neurons when microinjected into the nucleus accumbens (terminal of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway): increase hedonic facial reactions to sweet flavour, and decrease aversive reactions to bitter flavour (in rats), suggesting a role in subjective euphoria

Answer 154

* only differ in the rate in which the blood reaches the blood plasma * intraperitoneal - into space around internal organs in abdomen (most common form of administration in small animals) intravenous - instantly enters bloodstream and reaches brain in several seconds subcutaneous - under skin - can control speed of absorption through putting drug in oil or as a pellet sublingual administration - under tongue intracerebral - injected directly into brain due to usually being unable to cross the blood-brain barrier

Answer 155

e.g morphine has dual effect of desired: pain relief and undesired: depression of respiratory function want to produce max pain relief but min depressive respiratory effects TI - ratio between the dose that produces desired response in 50% of animals and the dose that produces the toxic effect in 50% of animals so have to work out difference between ED50 for desired vs undesired effect (therapeutic window) for appropriate dose e.g if toxic dose 5x more than effectice dose, then therapeutic index is 5:0 have to keep in mind tolerance, leading to increased dose margin of safety refers to difference in dose-response curve for therapeutic effects and that for adverse side effects (so most desirable when large margin of safety)

Answer 156

NT systems have cell bodies generating the NT | projects to different areas and released at certain target sites to change functionality of certain cells

Answer 157

rats self stimulating middle of mesolimbic dopamine pathway from VTA to nucleus accumbens (medial forebrain bundle) suggests reward area

Answer 158

electrode in somatosensory cortex - when stimulated, would feel a touch on their whisker and when turn a certain way, would be rewarded with electrode stimulation in the medial forebrain bundle so could dictate rats movements in this way

Answer 159

primary sexual characteristics ``` Sry gene (within Y chromosome) - causes male internal genitalia to form from gonads - testes no Sry gene - causes female internal genitalia - ovaries ``` androgens and anti-mularian hormone develop male sexual characteristics hormones from testes have organisational effect, promoting masculinisation and defeminisation

Answer 160

pubery initiated by arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus releases kisspeptin which causes the anterior hypothalamus to release Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) - LH and FSH in both genders (stimulating gonads in both genders to release their hormones, which are responsible for sexual maturation)

Answer 161

kisspeptin causes the anterior hypothalamus to release Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) GnRH causes pituitary to release FSH and LH in BOTH sexes into bloodstrem FSH&LH - cause testes to release testosterone (e.g facial hair) and ovaries to release estradiol (e.g breasts and maturation of genitalia) these hormones drive the development of sexual maturation

Answer 162

hypothalamus and pituitary are the master controllers of the endocrine system so communicate via hormones in the blood released into the circle of Willis (pituitary in the middle of this) play an organisational and activational role

Answer 163

combination of estradiol + progesterone - hormonal signal and promoting sexual behaviour in females pituitary releases FSH making follicle grow which releases estradiol (thickening of uterus lining occurs) - causes pituitary to release LH causing ovulation (release of ovum) - and lutanisation of corpus luteum releasing progesterone (maintaining lining) and estradiol - when fertilisation doesn't occur, stops producing these hormones and menstruation occurs where lining comes off signals the fertile phase of the female's cycle - indeed considered more attractive when in the fertile (luteal) phase (progesterone+estradiol) - 5% preference for fertile females seen in study in both males and females

Answer 164

cyclical approach to rat sexual behaviour proceptivity - female approach - ear wiggling attractiveness in fertile stage - male engagement/mounting receptivity - female willingness lordos - female posture

Answer 165

task: males and females were gonadectomised at birth (no gonads so no sex hormones being released) and either given hormones at that time (to study organisational effects) or in adulthood (to study activational effects) findings: * if given estradiol and progesterone - activational effect of female sexual behaviour in BOTH genetic males and females - no organisational effects * given testosterone - doesn't produce male or female sexual behaviour - so need testosterone at birth to produce organisational effect making one sensitive to testosterone later on in life * testosterone at birth (defeminising brain early in so not responsive to E and P) then estradiol and progesterone later on - not producing male or female sexual behaviour as not given correct activational hormone to match organisational effects (testosterone) * gonadectomised males need testosterone at birth in order to show activational effects when given testosterone again, in adulthood conclusions: shows interaction between activational (H having effect on behaviour after puberty) and organisation (need H when developing to have substrate to be sensitive for activational effect post puberty) effects of hormones

Answer 166

males initiate sex evenly across female menstrual cycle (discrepancy with findings suggesting males less receptive than females to knowing when female on menstrual cycle - data on attractiveness ratings) females initiate sex more often during ovulation (fertile phase of progesterone+estradiol) * when males administered GnRH antagonist (Nal-Glu), it blocks testosterone production, and sexual behaviour in males - week 4-6 then reduced frequency of sexual desire * but not if then given replacement testosterone after antagonist - maintained sexual desire * shows role of testosterone for males in sexual behaviour

Answer 167

greater discrimination in preference for signals (scent of testosterone, masculine face, symmetry (virus in womb makes asymmetrical)) of male dominance and genetic quality/compatability when fertile compared to when not (MHC major histocompatibility regarding immune compatibility) - due to in this period being much more likely to become pregnant, therefore becoming choosy e.g in chimps, will initiate sex with many males when infertile but when fertile, will become much more choosy and mate with same few males

Answer 168

male heterosexual = brain masculinised and defeminised female heterosexual = brain neither masculinised nor defeminised male homosexual = neither masculinised nor defeminised female homosexual = brain masculinised and defeminised bisexual both genders = masculinised but not defeminised ``` so preferring males = feminised (default) i.e not defeminised and not masculinised preferring females (masculinised and defeminised) ```

Answer 169

individuals who prefer women (have been masculinised and defeminised) have a masculine index to ring finger ratio - longer ring than index finger - and longer limbs individuals who prefer males (have been feminised and not masculinised) have a feminine index to finger ratio - longer index than ring - and short limbs when homosexual, tend to show the reverse - suggesting may be morphological change in these individuals, making them more like the opposite gender

Answer 170

- abnormal level of androgens secreted by adrenal glands experienced in womb by genetic females (may be due to a cancer) - produces ambiguous genitalia (fused labia and small penis) - 33.3% genetic females with CAH identify as homosexual or bisexual compared to 2% of females as a whole - clear example of hormone, leading to morphological change, altering sexual preference - also suggesting that sexual orientation in men to women is effected by masculinising (and defeminising) effects on the brain

Answer 171

- testosterone should masculinise and defeminise morphology - genetic males with androgen insensitivity syndrome develop as females - receptors across body not receptive to androgens (as genetic mutation to receptors) - so androgens not able to masculinise - may be complete/partial females depending on level of insensitivity - typically female external genitalia (no defeminisation) but also with testes (internal) and without uterus or Fallopian tubes (can't reproduce due to anti-Mullerian hormone defeminising internal genitalia) - typically favour men partners, suggesting neural feminisation - example of hormones causing morphological changes, leading to changes in sexual preference

Answer 172

concordance rates for homosexuality in male and female identical twins suggest there is a genetic influence on homosexuality males - 52% concordace when identical and 22% when fraternal females - 48% when identical and 16% when fraternal - not fully genetic determined, so 50% role for environment and psycho-social experiences

Answer 173

animals: sexually dimorphic (differences between the sexes) nucleus of the medial preoptic area (MPA) of the hypothalamus (size related to amount of adrogen hormones experienced in the fetus) humans: interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus number 3 (INAH3 - human homologue of the MPA) - 2-3x larger in and has a higher cell density in heterosexual males than homosexual males and females (suggesting morphological change due to hormonal environment making INAH3 bigger, linked to sexual preference) no difference in heterosexual men with and without AIDS, suggesting this did not cause the INAH3 difference

Answer 174

the left hemisphere individuals with epilepsy who have undergone a split-brain procedure can only voice a response e.g to the odour they have smelt, when received in the left hemisphere, whereas when relying on the right, can choose something that represents the smell but verbally will say they can't smell anything reinforcing idea that only become conscious about something if reaches area of brain able to verbalise it through language

Answer 175

generalisation - a general conclusion based on many observations of similar phenomenon reductionism - a phenomenon is described in terms of the more elementary processes that underlie it - approach adopted by many physiologists - both these scientific explanations are employed by behavioural neuroscientists due to combining the fields of psychology and physiology

Answer 176

fuction of a part of the brain is inferred by observing an animal who can no longer perform these functions due to damage in that brain area

Answer 177

study of the effects of drugs on the nervous system and on behaviour study of the movement of drugs

Answer 178

1. site of action - e.g morphine suppresses activity of neurons in spinal cord whereas aspirin reduces release of chemical informing pain centres about damaged tissue therefore, same dose will lead to much greater felt pain reduction when morphine 2. affinity with site of action - readiness with which the drug and associated molecules at site of action will attach so when high affinity - will achieve effects in low concentration (same drug with different effects may have different affinities at different sites of action - hope that higher affinity for therapeutic over toxic effect) so even 2 drugs with same site of action ^^ may have different effectiveness depending on their different affinities for binding sites

Answer 179

tend to be the opposite to the effects of the drug e.g euphoria to dysphoria get withdrawal when tolerance occurs as due to constant taking of the drug, body devises compensatory mechanisms to cope i.e the opposite action to the effect of the drug to compensate - so when drug isn't taken anymore, these compensatory mechanisms will make themselves felt as they are no longer opposed by the drug e.g reducing effectiveness through reducing affinity to drug or decreasing number of receptors

Answer 180

task: fiddling with different circuits in brain to see how they effect sexual behaviour findings: MPA (same as INAH3 in humans) - sexually dimorphic, as larger in males - lesions through cutting out then sexual behaviour gone and stimulation increases and activation firing more during sexual activities - administering testosterone into MPA increases sexual behaviour so site of testosterone driving sexual behaviour and contains testosterone receptors medial amygdala (connected to MPA) - contains testosterone receptors and lesions disrupt sexual behaviour - receives sensory info from place detecting pheromones and sends to be converted to physiological info nucleus paragigantocellularis - holds thrusting behaviour in spine by tonic inhibition so rat turns into thrusting robot when removing NP - medial preoptic area inhibits the NP which will then disinhibit the thrusting response to disinhibitory circuit feedback from sensory info into medial amygdala and medial preoptic area - feedback loop

Answer 181

ventral medial hypothalamus (VMH) - controls female sexual behaviour - lesions abolish Lordosis (female sexual beh.) even when treated with estradiol and progesterone so effects of these mediated by VMH - injections of E and P into VMH produces Lordosis - receives sensory input about pheromones - receives sensory feedback from body e.g vagina which also passes through medial amygdala nucleus paragigantocellularis - excitatory pathway controlling Lordosis through pattern generation in spine (as opposed to inhibitory in males) so requires excitation from VMH etc. - seems to explain why males may be more promiscuous so identifying difference in sexual behaviours regarding this

Answer 182

behavioural - CNS (brain+spine) and PNS - muscular movements which are appropriate to the situation that elicits them e.g curling of lip in wolf when it feels threatened autonomic - neuronal feed into organs to generate physiological reaction ^^ - so facilitate behaviours and provide fast mobilisation of energy to enable vigorous movement e.g increased activity in sympathetic branch of ANS hormonal - generate physiological change - reinforce the autonomic responses e.g adrenal medulla release adrenaline and noradrenaline which increase blood flow and encourage conversion of nutrients into glucose *so, autonomic and hormonal responses ACCOMPANY the emotional behavioural response*

Answer 183

somatic - nervous system that translates sensory to voluntary muscular movement (everything connected to muscles involved in voluntary movement) spinal and cranial nerves external sensory - PNS - brain - PNS - motor - muscles autonomic - portion of the nervous system that translates sensory into physiological processes (para)sympathetic nervous system internal sensory - PNS - brain - change state of body through autonomic nervous system and (para)sympathetic - organs and glands

Answer 184

voluntary skeletal muscles are organised in opposing pairs (consciously aware of intention of this movement) not consiously aware of the sequence of movement required to perform action (generation not in conscious)

Answer 185

they are organs that secrete hormones, coupling to receptors on targets to modulate activity of organs, regulating brain and physiology involuntary and regulated by autonomic nervous system

Answer 186

sympathetic nerves - thoracic and lumber spinal cord - producing excitations parasympathetic - cranial nerves (straight out of brainstem) and sacral spinal cord - energy conservation and relaxation

Answer 187

emerge directly from/ project out of brainstem (pons, medulla and midbrain) the 12 cranial nerves (I-XII) may be sensory (e.g touch), motor (genertion of action) or mixed some play a role in the autonomic NS controlling organs and glands e.g facial and occulomotor nerve - generation of changed physiological state e.g production of tears mediated by occulomotor nerve some are part of the somatic NS

Answer 188

hypothalamus (master endocrine gland) controls the pituitary gland (with hypothalamic releasing factors (hormones)) which releases hormones (9 different e.g oxytocin and FSH) into bloodstream via circle of Willis these act on receptors on endocrine gland (which each have a range of hormones), to change their hormonal output, and major organs to change physiological state

Answer 189

hypothalamus (collection of nuclei) - receives diverse input from the rest of the brain and has nerve projections broadly into the somatic and autonomic nervous system also controls circulating hormones from the pituitary gland - hypothalamus is the master endocrine gland

Answer 190

amygdala receives sensory info from cortex, thalamus (receiving site for all sensory info) and hippocampus (learned info) and projects widely to a range of nuclei which produce specific aspects of emotional response (sensory input to emotional output): detects emotionally salient stimuli and translates into somatic emotion via striatum (ties stimulus wiht correct emotional response) increases sensory and motor signal flow (speed of info in and out) via thalamus increases arousal via brainstem changes autonomic activity via hypothalamus lesions: abolish emotional responses (somatic, autonomic and hormonal aspects) abolish conditioned fear (especially the central nucleus of amygdala) - so mediates fear learning to previously neutral stimuli stimulation: emotional reactions encompassing somatic, autonomic and hormonal aspects - only when amygdala stimulated did people report FEELING afraid as opposed to showing signs of being afraid

Answer 191

magnitude of a fear CR (GSR) to a shock paired with CS+ is correlated with amygdala activation to the CS+ extinction of CS+ (presentation without shock), results in decline of the CR (GSR) as performing this response is unpleasant in itself this extinction learning is correlated with activation in the VMPFC/OFC in response to the CS+ (increase activity correlates with extinction of CR) role of frontal cortex in extinction learning rearding amygdala: - exerting inhibitory control over amygdala - OFC may be quicker at adapting to changes in contingency and override amygdala - may encode expected outcome to be compared with actual outcome to generate a prediction error signal, driving teaching signals (5-HT and dopamine) to modify associative learning in amygdala (best supported by evidence)

Answer 192

found that aggression and impulsivity are associated with reduced 5-HT this association found in: assault, murder, personality disordered patients etc. and higher concordance for aggressive and risky behaviour in MZs than DZs indeed, found that 5-HT agonists e.g fluoxetine, decrease aggressive and violent behaviours

Answer 193

low levels of serotonin (5-HT) risk factor for being dead at time 2 (first monkey to die had lowest levels) - compared to all monkeys with the highest level of 5-HT surviving due to undertaking aggressive and risky behaviour, such as picking fights with individuals bigger than them, or making big leaps so serotonin may have a controlling influence on risky behaviour, including aggression

Answer 194

bilateral lesions in OFC: cannot switch choice when it ceases to payoff (showing perseveration as sticking to strategy) in a reversal task - fits with view that OFC encodes expected outcome, to be compared to actual outcome, to generate a prediction error signal which modifies learning - so when they have a lesion, teaching signal generated by prediction error not there to encourage changing strategy Schoenbaum's model: discrepancy between expected and actual outcome is calculated by dopamine and 5-HT neurotransmitter systems, to modify learning which are activated by activity in vmPFC/OFC - low 5-HT would weaken this learning - low 5-HT may produce aggression and impulsivity because individuals fail to learn to modify their aggressive behaviour when it produces no payoff

Answer 195

findings: right hemisphere appears to play a more important role than left hemisphere in recognition of emotion - Borod found patients with right hemisphere damage were less able to identify emotional faces/words than pateints with left hemisphere damage (same as controls)

Answer 196

Adolphs task: tested 108 pateints with focal brain damage and their ability to recognise emotional faces findings: poorer recognition of emotional facial expressions was correlated with damage to somatosensory cortex of the right but not left hemisphere conclusion: mirror neuron hypothesis: - neurons in somatosensory cortex which respond to person producing certain facial expressions also respond to someone else producing those same facial expressions - shows that the right somatosensory strip is activated by the concept of an emotional expression, irrespective of its source - suggested that somatosensory representation of what it feels like to make the perceived expression provides cues to help us recognise the emotion expressed in the face we are viewing

Answer 197

neurons controlling emotional recognition and expression are linked - brain regions activated when emotional expressions observed also activated when these expressions are imitated supported by automatic mimicry of facial expressions by infants - can't see their own faces so neurons for recognition must be connected to those controlling expression - may be a hardwired link between somatosensory and motor cortex and when holding a pen in one's mouth to prevent smiling, emotions of fear and disgust were better recognised than happiness, as they more involve the upper part of the face compared to the mouth for smiling - Oberman et al 2007 if the right hemisphere controls emotion recognition and is linked to expression in the motor strip, then the left should be more expressive chimerical faces: faces stitched together from left side (controlled by right) are judged as more expressive - suggesting concept of emotions in right cortex if primary driver of facial emotional expressions

Answer 198

1. haemorrhage = rupture of cerebral blood vessels i.e too much blood - bleeding in the brain 2. ischemic stroke (clot) = occlusion of blood vessel, restricting blood supply i.e not enough blood - prevent the flow of blood * thrombus - blood clot forming within blood vessel * embolism - clot (embolus) e.g blood, fat, bacteria, breaks off from origin in common: brain not getting nutrients it needs

Answer 199

haemorrhage - reducing blood pressure via drugs (if due to high blood pressure) or surgery sealing vessels (if caused by weak and malforming blood vessels) ischemic - removing clot if early enough, antibiotics (if due to infection), or anticoagulants e.g tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) benefits if given between 3-5 hours and at 6 hours, therapeutic effect no longer helpful TPA is an enzyme causing the dissolution of fibrin, which is a protein involved in clot formation TPA has an odds ratio of around 1.9 meaning 1.9x as many people on good side of clinical outcomes compared to those not treated with TPA side effect of TPA: toxic for CNS if reaches interstitial fluid in strokes damaging blood-brain barrier, TPA further damages this barrier, and may cause haemorrhage FOR BOTH - constraint induced movement therapy: force patients to use the affected arm to promote neural rehabilitation, by placing unaffected arm in sling - so real world use of arm increases as a result of this therapy (when compared to placebo)

Answer 200

non-infective disease as not transmissable between people, just mother to fetus what: birth defect caused by alcohol exposure in utero consequences: facial anomalies e.g wide nose faulty brain development (incl. smaller brain), namely corpus callosum shrinkage (mediates conscious control of perception and action) which produces effects comparable to split brain patients and those with alien hand syndrome deficient filtrum

Answer 201

disorder of metabolism caused by abnormal protein synthesis or breakdown phenylketonuria (PKU) = lack of enzyme converting dietary amino acid phenylalanine into the proteinogenic amino acid tyrosine loss of myelination due to excessive amounts of phenylalanine in the bloodstream - can interfere with brain development and consequently have IQ of only 20 at 6 y/o treatment: low phenylalanine diet

Answer 202

cause: extra twenty first chromosome (3rd) clinical characteristics: wide ranging mental & physical symptoms (e.g single transverse plamer crease and strabismus-eye looking in different direction) and broad ranging biological differences - brains 10% lighter predictive marker in the womb pre-abortion period: high nuchal translucency (gap between spine and skin at back) found in ultrasound signals in fetus then 75% risk for down's followed by amniocentesis, taking amniotic fluid, which can determine whether third chromosome 21 link to dementia: early onset is common in DS and is marked by amyloid plaques similar to Alzheimer's - degeneration occurs after age 30 due to abnormal microscopic structure growth in the brain

Answer 203

metabolic disorder - protein build-up at root of neurodegeneration (growth of Lewy Bodies) 2nd most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's 0.3% increasing due to ageing population and maybe due to environmental pollution 4 main symptoms: 1. resting tremor 2. muscular rigidity 3. bradykinesia (slowness of movement) 4. postural instability discreet brain damage degeneration of motor and motivational control - so may be that these are linked in circuitry cause: degeneration of nigrostriatal DA pathway - dopamine-secreting neurons of substantia nigra (midbrain) which project to striatum (crucial for motor control) and basal ganglia nuclei symptoms don't show until 80-90% of DA cells are gone surviving neurons have Lewy Bodies

Answer 204

``` Lewy bodies (develop inside neurons and cause neurodegeneration of them) nigrostriatal dopamine neurons that survive PD express Lewy Bodies, which are made of misfolded alpha-synuclein protein bound to ubiquitin at their core ``` first appear in the brainstem when aysymptomatic develop in substantia nigra, brain stem, basal forebrain and cortex nigrostrial cells especially vulnerable to damage caused by these LBs

Answer 205

95% of PD cases sporadic (come from nowhere so no familial prediction) - so maybe mix of genetic vulnerability with environmental toxins 1. familial form - due to mutations of gene on chromosome 4, creating misfolded alpha synuclein protein (which form the core of Lewy Bodies) - toxic build up 2. another familial form - due to mutated gene for Parkin which normally attaches ubiquitin molecules to misfolded proteins, allowing proteasome to bond and destroy the misfolded, abnormal ones. when these misfolded proteins accumulate, they cause cell death

Answer 206

MPTP - can be made accidently when making synthetic heroin MPPP disrupts mitochondrial metabolism, causing build up of free radicals and nigrostriatal apoptosis (cell death so selective disruption of niagrostriatal pathway) can cause Parkinson's within a couple of hours of exposure

Answer 207

treatment aims to increase function (dopamine output) of the remaining 10-20% of DA cells in nigrostriatal pathway dopamine created from the dietary amino acid tyrosine L-dopa (precursor of dopamine) (last resort )- administered as can cross blood brain barrier, dopamine cannot (precursor to dopamine) - so does increase dopamine turnover in nigrostriatal pathway in remaining 10-20% of cells side effects: increases dopamine in mesolimbic and mesocortical pathway, producing pathological gambling and schizotypal delusions and hallucination in some patients dyskinesia - involuntary movements (continued L-dopa) MAO-B inhibitors: increase dopamine by blocking its breakdown - seems to reduce symptoms rather than slowing down degeneration thus delaying need for L-dopa in early disease, but has more effects and is less effective

Answer 208

1. first line: MAO-B inhibitors (to maximise what dopamine remains by blocking its breakdown), then dopamine agonists (BUT floods system, creating side effects of hallucinations and compulsive behaviour) 2. introduce low dose L-dopa, which needs an increased dose when disease worsens 3. combine all 3 therapies 4. DBS of subthalamic nucleus to reduce tremors (but only treats motor consequences, not cognitive or affective symptoms such as dementia and depression)

Answer 209

aims to treat the cause, not the symptoms, of PD - inject nigrostriatal dopamine cells from fetus into the substantia nigra, to project and restore number of cells in DA pathway (give rise to dopamine-producing cell which form connections) seems to be most effective in patients that best respond to L-DOPA i.e have more neurons in basal gnalgia receptive to secreted dopamine issue: chemical gradients control projection of cells to target sites, so putting these cells in brain may not enable this and could just as easily cause a tumor effects short lived and effect may be due to dopamine efflux and misfolded a-synuclein proteins eventually destroy these new cells side effects: dystonias (twisting contractions) which may be due to excess dopamine misfolded alpha-synuclein protein transferred to transplanted tissue, so they too showed degeneration - so no longer recommended as a treatment

Answer 210

loop form cortex - basal ganglia - back to primary motor cortex to produce motor behaviour by projections to the spine ^^ so action plans arise in cortex and are moderated by BG before execution 2 pathways: the balance between which, determines the smoothness of the movement direct - activates cortex - activates wanted movement indirect - inhibits cortex - inhibits unwanted movements nigrostriatal pathways projects onto and excites the direct pathway, to promote action you want AND inhibits the indirect pathway - tuning system to be more promoted to desired action

Answer 211

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder DSM-IV diagnosis requires 6/9 inattention AND 6/9 hyperactivity symptoms for 6 months - roughly 8% of kids with males 2x more likely - may be missing females or something about being a male making it a risk factor (tends to emerge at school, not at home) inattention: not listening, lack of effort, distracted, forgetful etc. hyperactivity/impulsivity: can't wait for turn, talks a lot, runs about, loud etc.

Answer 212

comorbid with aggression, conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), depression and anxiety and tics in a sample, only 31% had ADHD alone, whereas 21% had ODD alongside, with 12% of these also having anxiety the range of symptoms due to comorbidity makes treatment challenging

Answer 213

genetic: concordance rates are higher for MZs than DZs: 86% in male MZ and 27% in DZ and 64% female MZ and 18% in DZ some of the highest concordance rates for a disorder in both genders - suggesting a strong genetic component low dopamine levels in prefrontal cortex (as demonstrated through Ritalin - a dopamine agonist - lessening symptoms) environment: - fetal alcohol syndrome e.g issues with corpus callosum and communication between hemispheres - maternal tobacco smoking - lead poisoning and insecticides and food additives - very low birth weight and premature birth and infections during pregnancy - traumatic brain injury but also correlated with poor economic status

Answer 214

that risk taking may be selected by evolution e.g for migration of certain individuals to new lands etc. has a functional impulsivity questionnaire e.g i can put my thoughts into words rapidly so argument that those with ADHD don't have a problem, but constraints of society at odds with nature of them

Answer 215

methylphenidate - Ritalin what: blocks the dopamine and noradrenalin reuptake transporter, increasing dopamine in the synpatic cleft (amphetamine and cocaine do the same thus addictive compound as increasing dopamine turnover)

Answer 216

links to later addiction: recorded childhood stimulant therapy and later addiction outcomes and found that average odds ratio of 1.9(increased odds in not having substance abuse disorder when medicated compared to not), showing stimulant therapy protects against later addiction - still at greater risk than the general population, though explanation of this? ritalin may normalise previously reduced activation levels in the ventral attentional stream ('what') and frontoparietal network in those with ADHD - both in children and only the latter in adults - whereas if give normal people Ritalin, function would reduce, due to overstimulation, as were already at the optimmum level - so when those on Ritalin due to ADHD take those addictive drugs, not having the same effect due to already being at optimum function due to the Ritalin, so less likely to develop substance abuse disorder

Answer 217

looked at depression, anxiety and ADHD as prospective risk factors for early drug use onset in both high risk (addicted parents) and low risk findings: - high risk children of addicted parents had higher anxiety, depression and dysregulation (ADHD symptoms and cog impairment) at both age points - combined affective(anx+dep)+dysregulation score at 10-12 prospectively predicted an earlier age of initiating drug use reported at 16 - and early onset drug use is a risk factor for adult addiction (more maleable brain so more likely to become dependent) conclusion: pathway of ADHD to drug addiction is as follows... ADHD is risk factor for early drug onset and early onset risk factor for adult dependence

Answer 218

drug self-administration is reinforced by the hedonic experience of the drug study: task: rat presses lever to produce drug intravenous or into brain findings: do this repeatedly after several days conclusion: rapid acquisition suggests pos reinforcement (of rewarding feeling) can generate addiction oposition to this: rats are social animals, so when alone experience terror, so may be neg reinforcement driving drug taking due to escaping feeling of terror study 2: findings: rats quickly acquire the response within days of electrical self-stimulation of mesolimbic dopamine pathway, show binge consumption, displaces food till starvation and continues despite painful foot shock conclusion: drug hijacks brain reward mechanisms and electrical self-stimulation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway creates addictive like behaviour due to being rewarding therefore pos reinforcement study 3: ratbots findings: rewarding rats with mesolimbic dopamine pathway stimulation for moving in a certain direction in response to virtual whisker stimulation achieves a high level of control over the rats' movement conclusion: complex behaviours produced by addicts due to being driven by stimulation of mesolimbic dopamine pathway, produced by drug of abuse, generating a robot

Answer 219

theory - reduction of aversive states by the drug reinforces continued drug use e.g painkillers and drugs being addictive due to removing withdrawal symptoms or psychological distress from psychiatric illnesses or anxiety etc. withdrawal: symptoms are opposite to drug's direct effects (within 20h) due to desensitisation of receptors (fewer or decoupled from ion channels due to excessive coupling) to compsenate for effect of drug * so use serves to avoid these symptoms - after days of abstinence and feeling really tired (not acute but insessent)

Answer 220

chronic coupling to receptors in certain areas, occuring with persistent drug use, may also lead to reduced brain function: methamphetamine abusers show loss of striatal (in mesolimbic pathway) dopamine activity at 1 month abstinence, and some recovery at 14 months but proportion of recovery decreased with years of use so 50% recovery at4-6 years but 0% recovery at 16 years of use (average 30%) - difference between withdrawal effects and actual cellular death when using drugs for different periods of time * so use may continue to correct this striatal dysfunction

Answer 221

addiction is highly comorbid with mental illness 36% with alcoholism and 53% with drug dependence have a mental health diagnosis e.g Sz and APD (2.3 and 4.5x higher than non-dependent pop.) many more addicts will have sub-clinical psychiatric symptoms * continuous drug use could serve to self-medicate symptoms (using to avoid the symptoms), acutely ammeliorating these symptoms and distress study supporting this: % choice of alcohol at baseline - horrible noise produced and reading stressful sentences to make distressed those more alcohol dependent, more sensitive to effects of stress increasing alcohol choice from 50 to 80 least dependent was 22 to 28 * dependence leading to increased sensitivity to negative states, acting as a trigger to alcohol use *

Answer 222

- posterior insula cortex is primary sensory cortex for interoceptive pain, temp, touch etc. - central insula integrates emotional info from amygdala - anterior insula integreates emotional/decision info from PFC * SO: may carry info about adverse internal and emotional states which may promote drug use studies supporting link to drug addiction: imaging studies: implicate the insula in subjective awareness of internal states, both pleasant and painful e.g heartbeat awareness correlated with insula activation Naqvi studied stroke patients and those with insula damage were associated with easy quitting of smoking: disproportionate number of 'disrupted' smokers i.e quit easily and successfully, in insula group (12v4) insula only region associated with this * so, damage to insula blocks experience of negative emotional states that trigger smoking e.g withdrawal, anxiety etc. making it easy to quit study to counter lack of precision allowed in human lesion studies by inserting directly into insula: Forget found infusion of an inhibitory drug into insula of rats reduced nicotine self-administration

Answer 223

for example if giving rats an intravenous injection, they may release a certain amount of stress hormone, due to the autonomic nervous system being activated by the actions of being picked up, the pain of being injected etc. so important that the actions of administering the drug are the same so that any difference in outcome can be isolated to the effects of the drug vs placebo

Answer 224

female ova all contain an X sex chromosome half of male sperm contain an X sex chromosome and half contain a Y sex chromosome therefore, a Y containing sperm will lead to an XY fertilised ovum, and so a male

Answer 225

1. gonads - testes and ovaries - responsible for releasing hormones and producing ova or sperm - become testes (not default) due to Sry gene on Y sex chromosome 2. internal genitalia - if testes present, will secrete hormones enabling a Wolffian system to develop e.g prostate (androgens) and Mullerian default not to (anti-Mullerian hormone) and if not then Mullerian system e.g uterus 3. external genitalia - visible genitalia - only become male when presence of dihydrotestosterone (androgen)

Answer 226

organisational - influence development of a person's sex organs and brain - permanent effects activational - occur later after sex organs have developed and effect them - e.g enabling erections and production of sperm and inducing ovulation - therefore, hormones will have different activational effects due to the genders' bodies being organised differently

Answer 227

either the genetic males' don't produce anti-Mullerian hormone or no receptors to bind to it : defeminisation of internal sex organs doesn't occur so both develop, and female sex organs interfere with the functioning of the male ones

Answer 228

females only inherit one X sex chromosome so instead of XX are X0 therefore, don't develop ovaries as need both XX and don't develop testes as no Y chromosome but do develop female internal and external sex organs, just unable to reproduce, showing that hormones produced from ovaries not needed to develop into a female

Answer 229

primary - organs etc. that are present at birth secondary - characteristics that are only present after puberty e.g enlarged breasts

Answer 230

found that a scientist alone on an island, who was shaving and weighing his beard everyday, had a much faster growing beard in the last few days due to anticipation of sexual activity speed of beard growth is positively correlated to amount of androgen production therefore, anticipation of sexual activity increased levels of androgen in the male (increases in a similar way in women as well)

Answer 231

both: processes that lead to learning classical/pavlovian: pairing of 2 stimuli and works with involuntary responses * associate an involuntary response and a stimulus * timing of stimulus = before response and timing of response = after stimulus operant/instrumental: pairing of behaviour and response and works with voluntary behaviours * associate a voluntary behaviour and a consequence * timing of stimulus = after the DESIRED respose and timing of response = before the stimulus

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