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Anatomy and physiology final > Lecture exam study guide > Flashcards

Lecture exam study guide Flashcards

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1
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3
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Where does lymph enter and become part of plasma?

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Lymph enters the bloodstream at the subclavian veins, becoming part of the plasma.

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4
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What does edematous mean?

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Edematous refers to swelling caused by excess fluid trapped in tissues.

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5
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What could cause edema?

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Blocked lymphatic vessels, increased capillary permeability, or decreased plasma proteins.

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6
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If there is swelling in a specific area, what lymphatic vessel might be affected?

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The vessel draining that region—e.g., axillary lymphatics for arm swelling.

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7
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What are the functions of lymphocytes?

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Recognize and respond to antigens; involved in adaptive immunity.

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8
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What are the functions of macrophages?

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Phagocytize pathogens and debris; activate T cells.

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9
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What are mast cells and what do they do?

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Mast cells release histamine and other chemicals during inflammation and allergic responses.

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10
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What are cytokines and their roles?

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Cytokines are signaling proteins that regulate immunity, inflammation, and hematopoiesis.

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11
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Where are lymphocytes found?

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Found in lymph nodes, spleen, blood, and lymphatic tissues.

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12
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What is the function of the thymus?

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Site of T cell maturation and education.

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13
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What are thymosins?

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Hormones secreted by the thymus that stimulate T cell development.

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14
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What activates interferons?

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Interferons are released by virus-infected cells to alert neighboring cells.

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15
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Which immune cells are phagocytic?

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Macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells.

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16
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What is the function of IL-1?

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Stimulates fever, activates lymphocytes, and promotes inflammation.

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17
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What is innate immunity?

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Non-specific defense mechanisms present at birth; triggered by pathogens or injury.

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18
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What is adaptive immunity?

A

Specific immunity developed after exposure to antigens; involves memory cells.

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19
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What are mechanical barriers in immunity?

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Skin and mucous membranes that block pathogen entry.

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20
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What are chemical barriers in immunity?

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Enzymes, pH, and antimicrobial proteins (e.g., lysozyme in saliva, gastric juice).

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21
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What is inflammation?

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Localized tissue response to injury or infection involving redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

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22
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What is a fever and its function?

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Elevated body temperature that inhibits pathogens and enhances immune response.

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23
Q

What is species resistance?

A

Inherent resistance of a species to certain diseases that affect other species.

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24
Q

What is MHC and its function?

A

Major Histocompatibility Complex; presents antigens to T cells for recognition.

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25
Which cells are involved in innate immune response?
Neutrophils, macrophages, NK cells, dendritic cells.
26
Which cells are involved in adaptive immune response?
T cells (helper & cytotoxic) and B cells (plasma & memory).
27
What are the different layers of the alimentary canal?
Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.
28
What is peristalsis?
Wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.
29
What are the parts of a tooth and their functions?
Enamel (protective), dentin (structure), pulp (nerves/blood), root (anchors tooth).
30
Where are the different tonsils located?
Palatine (sides of throat), pharyngeal/adenoids (nasopharynx), lingual (base of tongue).
31
What do different digestive enzymes do and where are they found?
Amylase (saliva, carbs), pepsin (stomach, proteins), lipase (pancreas, fats), etc.
32
What is a hiatal hernia?
When part of the stomach pushes through the diaphragm into the chest cavity.
33
What causes ulcers?
Helicobacter pylori infection, NSAIDs, or excessive acid.
34
What do different digestive cells secrete?
Parietal (HCl), chief (pepsinogen), G cells (gastrin), goblet (mucus).
35
What does cholecystokinin (CCK) do?
Stimulates bile and pancreatic enzyme release; slows gastric emptying.
36
What are the ducts of the liver and pancreas?
Hepatic duct, cystic duct, common bile duct, pancreatic duct.
37
What are the parts of the small intestine in order?
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum.
38
What are vocal cords and what affects pitch?
Folds in larynx; tension increases pitch.
39
What is laryngitis?
Inflammation of the larynx causing hoarseness or voice loss.
40
Differentiate larynx and pharynx.
Larynx is voice box (below pharynx); pharynx is throat (above larynx).
41
How does atmospheric pressure affect breathing?
Air moves into lungs when pressure in lungs is lower than atmospheric pressure.
42
Define IRV, ERV, TV, and VC.
IRV: extra in, ERV: extra out, TV: normal breath, VC: total usable volume.
43
How does exercise affect O2 and CO2 levels?
Increases CO2 and O2 demand; raises respiratory rate.
44
What is pneumonia?
Infection causing fluid in alveoli and impaired gas exchange.
45
What is pneumothorax?
Collapsed lung due to air in pleural cavity.
46
What is pulmonary ventilation?
Movement of air into and out of the lungs.
47
What are hiccups, laughs, sneezes, and yawns?
Involuntary actions involving diaphragm or airway stimulation.
48
Where are the respiratory control areas of the brain?
Medulla oblongata and pons.
49
How does breathing affect CO2 and O2 levels?
Increased breathing lowers CO2 and raises O2.
50
What is the function of erythropoietin (EPO)?
Stimulates red blood cell production in response to low oxygen.
51
What are renal pyramids and corpuscles?
Pyramids are in medulla (tubules); corpuscles filter blood in cortex.
52
Where is glucose mainly reabsorbed in the nephron?
Proximal convoluted tubule.
53
What is the function of ADH?
Increases water reabsorption in collecting ducts.
54
What is uric acid and what disease can it cause?
Waste product of purines; high levels cause gout.
55
What is aldosterone and its function?
Hormone that increases Na+ reabsorption and water retention.
56
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
Structure that regulates BP via RAAS by releasing renin.
57
What are diuretics and how do they work?
Drugs that increase urine output by decreasing water reabsorption.
58
What are the tubes of the urinary system?
Ureters, bladder, urethra.
59
Where is water actively transported in the nephron?
Ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
60
How do vasodilation and vasoconstriction affect GFR?
Vasodilation increases GFR; vasoconstriction decreases it.
61
What are the major vessels of the kidney?
Renal artery, segmental, interlobar, arcuate, interlobular, afferent arteriole.
62
What affects glomerular filtration rate (GFR)?
Blood pressure, arteriole diameter, and plasma protein concentration.
63
How does Boyle’s Law apply to breathing?
Pressure inversely relates to volume; lungs expand, pressure drops, air enters.
64
What affects the pH of blood?
CO2 levels (via carbonic acid), H+ ions, and buffers like bicarbonate.
65
What are the differences between passive/active and natural/artificial immunity?
Active: body makes antibodies. Passive: antibodies given. Natural: from infection/mother. Artificial: vaccine or injection.
66
How do vaccines work?
Stimulate adaptive immune response by introducing harmless antigens.
67
What are monoclonal antibodies?
Identical antibodies produced in lab targeting specific antigens.
68
What happens during the primary immune response?
B and T cells activate; slow antibody production with memory cell formation.
69
How do helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells work?
Helper T cells activate other immune cells; cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells.
70
What do digestive enzymes do and what cells secrete them?
Break down macromolecules; secreted by salivary glands, stomach, pancreas.
71
What is the pathway air takes in the body?
Nose → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli.
72
How do sympathetic/parasympathetic impulses affect digestion?
Sympathetic slows digestion; parasympathetic stimulates digestion.
73
How do NSAIDs affect the digestive system?
Can reduce mucus production and lead to ulcers.
74
What is acute pancreatitis?
Inflammation of the pancreas often due to enzyme activation or gallstones.
75
Why is LDL important in the digestive system?
Transports cholesterol to cells; excess leads to plaque buildup.
76
What are the steps of meiosis and when are cells haploid/diploid?
Meiosis I creates haploid cells; meiosis II separates chromatids.
77
Where does synapsis occur?
During prophase I of meiosis.
78
Where are sperm cells produced and matured?
Produced in seminiferous tubules; mature in epididymis.
79
Which male reproductive organs contribute to semen formation?
Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland.
80
What can lead to erectile dysfunction?
Poor circulation, nerve damage, hormonal imbalance, stress.
81
Where do sperm cells mature?
In the epididymis.
82
What does the bulbourethral gland do?
Secretes alkaline mucus for lubrication and neutralizing urethra.
83
What triggers ovulation?
A surge in LH (luteinizing hormone).
84
What hormonal changes lead to hot flashes?
Decreased estrogen during menopause.
85
What leads to an erection?
Parasympathetic stimulation causes vasodilation of penile arteries.
86
How does PCOS affect hormones in females?
Increases androgens, disrupts FSH/LH balance, causing irregular ovulation.
87
How does body fat affect fertility?
Excess or too little fat can disrupt hormone levels and ovulation.
88
What do estrogens and progesterone do in the body?
Estrogens develop female traits; progesterone maintains pregnancy.
89
What does a Pap smear do?
Screens for cervical cancer and abnormal cells.
90
Which male/female structures are analogous?
Testes–ovaries, penis–clitoris, scrotum–labia majora.
91
Where does fertilization typically occur?
In the ampulla of the fallopian tube.
92
What is menopause and why does it happen?
End of menstruation due to decline in ovarian hormone production.
93
What are types of infertility in males/females and their causes?
Low sperm count, blocked tubes, hormonal imbalance, PCOS.
94
How do FSH and LH affect reproductive organs?
FSH stimulates gamete production; LH triggers ovulation and testosterone release.
95
What is endometriosis?
When endometrial tissue grows outside uterus, causing pain and infertility.

Anatomy and physiology final (3 decks)

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