Lecture for final Flashcards
(33 cards)
1
Q
Mental imagery
A
- Imagery is the mental representation of things that are not being currently sensed by the self organs
- May represent things that have never been observed by our senses
- May involve mental representations in any of the sensory modalities
2
Q
Pylynshyn- propositional representation
A
- Imagery is like perception
- Imagery is like a description of the features of an image
- It is not sensory modality specific because it is not sensory
- Differences among types of images and verbalizations are in terms of context
- There are dissimilarities between real pictures and images
- Imagery is an epiphenomenon
3
Q
Kosslyn- abstract analogue representation
A
- Imagery is like perception
- imagery retains some of the sensory qualities of perception
- Imagery is sensory modality specific- visual images are like pictures in the head
4
Q
Evidence supporting Pylynshyn
A
- Some operations are easy to perform on images and can’t perform on pictures, and some operations are easy to perform on pictures and can’t perform on images (i.e. tearing up a picture, being able to imagine an apple in different colors)
- Reisberg & Carmichael study of ambiguous rabbit/duck figure
- Carmichael et al study on giving different labels to the same set of pictures- guides future retrieval when drawing the images from memory
- Distortions of cognitive maps
5
Q
Evidence supporting Kosslyn
A
- Implicit encoding- self reports- how many cabinet doors are in your kitchen?
- Image scanning, i.e. on an island
- Symbolic distance effect- images that are closer in size exhibit longer response times than images that are further in size
- Mental rotation task- the time required to mentally rotate is a function of the number of degrees they need to actually rotate
- Neuroscience evidence- there is increased activity in areas of the visual cortex during mental imagery and while viewing visually presented stimuli
6
Q
Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory
A
- Long term memory has 2 distinct coding systems for representing information to be stored, 1 is verbal and 2 involves imagery
1) pictoral system has superior memory to verbal
2) representing ideas in both system is superior to only 1 - Concepts are connected to related concepts in the same system and possibly to the other system
- Activating a concept leads to activation of closely related concepts—kind of like associative networks
- Always better to have more cues for retrieval, but in particular the pictoral system is highly effective
7
Q
Bower’s relational organization hypothesis
A
- Number of associations is even more important than more types of codes
- Believed that imagery improved memory not because images are necessarily richer than verbal labels, but because imagery produces more associations between items to be recalled (i.e. both verbal label and image)
- Demonstration: associating 2 words together and remembering the paired association
- Finding that forming a visual image might be effective, but the
more ways that you can relative the image to something else
visually is especially effective
-It is not imagery per se that helps memory, but rather the way in
which imagery is used
- Interacting images presumably create or suggest more links
between the target information and other information, making
the target easier to retrieve
8
Q
Paivio’s clock angles study
A
- Image 2 standard nondigital clocks, each clock represents one of the specified times, compare the angles formed between the hour hand and the minute hand on the 2 mental clocks and decide which clock has a smaller angle
- There are individual differences in people’s abilities to do this
- Reaction time slower when differences between the angles were smaller
- Reaction time faster for high imagery vs. low imagery subjects
- Reaction times NOT related to verbal abilities
9
Q
Consciousness
A
- Qualia = individual instanes of subjective experience
- A state is conscious when there is something like it to be in that state
10
Q
First person data vs. second person data
A
First person data
- Sensory experiences
- Bodily sensations
- Mental imagery
- Emotional experiences
- stream of occurring thought
- All are states of subjective experience- there is something it is like to have these states
- Hard to collect
Second person data
- Wakefulness
- Perceptual discrimination
- Integrated control
- Access and self-monitoring
- Verbal reports
- Focused attentions
- RT’s
- Dissociation of verbal response and behavior
- Data re: underlying brain processes
- Easy to collect
11
Q
Non-consciousness
A
- Unexpected, unreportable
- Could be called unconscious
- Could be response inhibition, processes of retrieval
- Ex. in vision we are not aware of the pattern of light entering the retina, we are only aware of our brain’s interpretation of stimuli once it reaches awareness
12
Q
Un-sub-pre-conscious
A
- Like TOT, pops into consciousness
- You’re not able to talk about it but it’s available
- Able to report at some point in time, but not now
13
Q
Conscious
A
- Experienced right now
- Assumed to be reportable in the moment
14
Q
Meta-conscious (re-represented)
A
- Explicit awareness of the contents of consciousness, re-represented
- Ability to think about what you are experiencing right now
15
Q
Private self-consciousness
A
- Awareness of the person and covert aspects of the self
- Broader construct than meta-consciousness
16
Q
Meta-cognition
A
- Involves knowledge about one’s knowledge or abilities
- Can involve awareness of one’s knowledge
- Can have metacognition without awareness
17
Q
Autonoetic or extended consciousness
A
- Involves projecting consciousness into the remembered past or imagined future
- Ex. remember back to what you were doing Sat night. What were you doing, feeling, hearing?
18
Q
Mindfulness or situation awareness
A
- Corresponds to complete engagement in one’s ongoing activity
- Absence of mindfulness often entails a lack of meta-consciousness
- One can be mindful without being meta aware
19
Q
Higher order thought
A
- Involves second order representations of the contents of thought
- But can occur in the absence of awareness
- Ex. Tacit monitoring of desired goals and unwanted thoughts—Wegman’s work on ironic processes of mental control
20
Q
Contributions of consciousness to behavior are to increase
A
1) overall intelligence or rational appropriateness of behavior
2) ability of persons to control their own behavior and exert personal autonomy over bodily movements
21
Q
What is problem solving?
A
Finding a way out of a difficulty, finding a way around an obstacle, attaining an aim that was not immediately understandable or available
22
Q
Generate and Test Algorithm
A
- Trying one thing after another
- Pro: relatively easy to apply
- Con: combinatorial explosion- the number of positive moves is too many, you wouldn’t get too far in the game
23
Q
Working forward heuristic
A
- Search for an operator that will take you to a state in the problem space that appears to be closer to the goal than you are now
- Ex. Missionaries and cannibal problems???
24
Q
Means-end analysis heuristic
A
- Compare the current state with the goal state. If no difference, problem solved
- If there is a difference, set a subgroup to solve that difference. With more than one difference, solve the largest difference. You want to try to find something that will enable you to get to the subgoal
- Select an operator that will solve the difference identified in Step 2
- If the operator can be applied, do it. If not, set a new subgoal to reach a state to allow the application of the subgoal
- Return to step 1 with the new goal set in step 4
Ex. Tower of Hanoi- example of setting sub goals to reach larger goals
25
Working backward heuristic
- Begin at the goal state of the problem and try to work backward to the starting state
- Useful when the goal state is known but the initial state (first step) is not known
- Sometimes you don’t know what the steps are to get from the beginning to the end
There could be some goals in advance of how to achieve the next goal
- Ex. What would I need to do to become mayor? Start by talking to someone who is mayor and find out how they got there, maybe they were on city council, what did they do before that, looking backward to find the point where you can take a step to meet that ultimate beginning goal
26
Analog heuristic
- Think of another problem that is almost identical, the one that you can already solve
27
Two common deductive fallacies/errors
-Denying the antecedent
oEx. If something is a cloud, then floats in the sky. Thing is not a cloud, therefore, it does not float in the sky
oThere is something that could not be a cloud and could still float in the sky (i.e. balloon)
-Affirming the consequence
oEx. If something is a cloud then floats in the sky. Thing floats in the sky, therefore, it is a cloud.
-When arguments can also look logical, given the nature of the premises, the arguments presented are not logically valid
-In both cases, the premises could be true
-The conclusion does not follow from the premises
-2 different kinds of invalid arguments
28
Seven universal facial expressions
Happy, Surprise, Sad, Contempt, Anger, Disgust, Fear
29
Characteristics of maximizers
- More perfectionistic
- Less optimistic
- Greedier
- More neurotic
- Less open
- Less happy
- Lower in life satisfaction
- More hopeless
- Engage more in counter-factual thinking
- More procrastination--- worried about the time/energy/regret associated with making a new decision
- Less well-adjusted
- Ruminate about the past
- Have lower self-esteem
- More risk for depression
- More likely to be younger adults than lower adults
- According to Schwartz, 2 main characteristics of maximizers:
o High standards
o Wanting to be the best
30
Phonemes
Snippets of sound that make up words, that differentiate one unit from another
o i.e. bat and pat are differentiated by one initial sound
o not a 1:1 correspondence between the alphabet and the # phonemes—more phonemes
31
Morphemes
- smallest units of language carrying meaning and how to combine them into words
- i.e. the word unhappy has 2 morphemes- un and happy, each one of these elements has meaning and when you put them together you get a different meaning than when they are alone
- the endings of verbs are morphemes, plural are morphemes, etc.
32
Syntax
o Phrases and sentences- units that express complete thoughts and rules for forming them from words
o Rules for combining words
o Different syntax in different languages, which is one way that languages differ from one another
33
Chomsky: evidence for innate acquisition
1) Milestones: language learning pattern is uniform in children despite variable language environments
2) the character of what is learned is not related in a simple way to the input sample
a. word learning is underdetermined by the learning situation
b. Motherese does not predict the rate or pattern of language development during early years
C. Children are not systematically reinforced for linguistic behavior. Parents correct truth of a sentence, but not grammaticality
3) Age of acquisition matters- sensitive/critical period suggests innately preprogrammed time period for acquisition
4) children invent linguistic generalizations, which are not directly in their experience
5) children even invent linguistic forms, which “experience” could NOT have made available
