Lectures 13-19 Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Contraction
A
Systole
Force blood into places
2
Q
Systole
A
Systolic blood pressure
Max pressure
Top number
(<120 in healthy individuals)
During contraction period, when ventricles contract sending blood to arteries
3
Q
Contraction of atria
A
Aka atrial systole
Force blood into ventricles
4
Q
Contraction of ventricles
A
Aka ventricular systole
Right ventricles force blood into pulmonary trunk
Left ventricles force blood into aorta
5
Q
Relaxation
A
Diastole
6
Q
Diastole
A
Diastolic blood pressure
(Bottom number)
Min pressure
When heart relaxes between beats
<80 in healthy individuals
Not zero due to recoil of arterial walls
7
Q
Rest
A
Phase where atria and ventricles are relaxed and fill passively
8
Q
After load
A
Diastolic arterial pressure - the pressure against which the heart muscle must work to eject blood during systole
9
Q
Neural and endocrine signals control
A
Strength and rate of contraction
10
Q
Sympathetic innervation
A
Norepinephrine
Increases hr
11
Q
Parasympathetic innervation
A
Acetylcholine
Decreases/lowers hr
12
Q
Epinephrine
A
Increases strength of each contraction
13
Q
Cardiac output during excercise
A
Increases from 5-25L/min
(40L in elite athletes)
14
Q
What propagates electric signal
A
Nodes
Nerves
Intercalated disks
15
Q
Nodes
A
SA(sinoatrial) node - (hearts natural pacemaker: electrical impulses propagated here
AV atrioventrilicar node
16
Q
Nerves
A
Bundle of His
Bundle of branches
Purkinge fibres
17
Q
Intercalated disks
A
Type of gap junction specific to heart
Cardiac muscle made up of cardiomyocutes connected by intercallaged disks that work together as a single functional organ
Allow our heart to beat as one
18
Q
Examples of miscommunication
A
Usually results in some kind of arrhythmia
- abnormal sinoatrial node firing (tachycardi) bradycardia
Blocks
Fibrillations
19
Q
Abnormal sinoatrial node firing
A
Type of disruption in signalling
Tachychardia -fast >100bpm resting
Bradycardia slow <60bpm
20
Q
Blocks
A
Ex at av node
Can slow down or prevent signal propagation from atria to ventricles
Ventricles can conduct independently (bundles of his 40bpm)
21
Q
Fibrillations
A
More serious
Occurring when cells depolarize independently
A-fib and v-fib
22
Q
A-fib
A
Atrial fibrillation
A quivering or irregular heart beat
23
Q
V-fib
A
Most serious cardiac rhythm disturbance
24
Q
Atherosclerosis
A
Narrowing of arteries due to calcified fatty deposits (plaque) and thickening of the wall
Triggered by damage of arterial wall
Can lead to heart attack or stroke
25
Coronary artery diseas
Atherosclerosis in the arteries of heart muscle
26
Factors influencing risk of atherosclerosis
- elevated lipids, hupertension, inflammation, medications (c-recepive protein)
-diet (sodium potassium saturated and trans fats)
- physical inactivity,smoking, obesity and diabetes
- age and genetics
27
Treating coronary artery blockages
Angioplasty
Bypass surgery
28
Angioplasty
Catheter balloon threaded into artery in blocked area
Balloon is inflated and plaque is pushed and held by a stent to artery walls
29
Bypass surgery
- vein taken from arm or leg and one end attached to above blockage and other to below
30
How does the heart respond to hypertrophy
Enlargement of the heart
(A sign of being overworked) ex athletes heart
Appropriate adaptations
31
Heart enlargement endurance athletes
Increase LV chamber
32
Enlargement of the heart lifters
Increase in LV wall and septum thickness(to overcome after load)
33
When is enlargement of the heart a bad case
Causes high blood pressure and narrowing of aortic valve
Heart mud work harder to overcome this
34
Vasoconstriction
Norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to Alpha receptors located on arteries
This causes arteries to constrict
This increases blood pressure
Ex. During excercise
35
Vasodilation
Blood vessels in skeletal muscle lack alpha receptors
Norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to them in arteries of skeletal muscle
This dilates vessels of skeletal muscle so they can receive blood flow (also during excercise)
36
Does blood pressure increase dramatically during exercise?
No
Not really
Distribution of blood does not increase proportionally
Blood flow is diverted where it is needed - ie the working muscles
Constriction of vessels to the gut and kidneys decreases blood flow to these organs
37
Does blood pressure increase a lot during resistance training?
Yes tons
Increase it to up to 345/245 mmHg
Bc holding breath increases intratkoratic pressure during lift
-temporarily raises presser and slows heart rate
38
Valsava maneuver
Increased intrathoracatic pressure during a lift due to holding breath
39
The gastrointestinal tract
Represents a vast body surface area that is exposed to the external environment
Sees food and to I. Substances and I fectious agents
40
Unique mechanisms to deal with infections and toxic substances
(Sense and expel notorious substances) ex Vomit, diarrhea
Specialized populations of T cells localized in the intestinal mucosa
41
GI sphincters in order
Upper esophageal sphincter
Lower esophageal sphincter
Pyloric sphincter
Ilocecal valve
Anal sphincter
42
How long is gi tract
28 ft
43
How large is luminal surface area and why
200-400m^2
Due to villi increased surface area for nutrient absorption
44
Transit time for ingested meal
Highly variable
30-80hr
5-8hr in stomach and small intestine
Rest of time in colon
45
Gut micro biome
Bacteria etc.
protects against pathogenic microbes that enter/reside in the tract
46
Intristic nervous system
Aka enteric nervous system can control and coordinate function gi
Opening and closing sphincters
47
Four basic processes involved in digestion
Motility - peristalsis
Secretion
- saliva, mucous
- antibodies
- digestive enzymes
- bile
- bicarbonate
Digestion
Absorption
-water
-nutrients
48
Cephalon phase of digestion
chemical and mechanical digestion begin in the mouth)
Chewing
Saliva secretions in response to sight smell taste (senses)
Saliva secretion by sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
49
Saliva function
Softens and lubricates food
Provides enzymes: amylase and some lipase (but no protein digestion)
50
Gastric phase of digestion and absorption
(Stomach)
Secretory cells of the gastric mucosa- note the influence of the parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest) increases intestinal and glad activity and relaxes sphincter muscles in the gi tract
Note : digestion of protein and fat but not carbohydrates in stomach
51
Main contributor of digestive enzymes
Pancreas
52
Enzymes and pancreas
How are they released ??
Enzymes are released from pancreas in inactive form ex. Trypsinogen
Activated in small intestine by enterkinase in brush border of duodenum to form trypsin (for protein digestion
53
Bile
Produced? Stored? Used for?
Produced in liver
Stored in Gallbladder
Used for fat digestion
54
Absorption in small intestine
Small intestinal mucosa
Villi increase surface area to promote nutrient absorption
55
Bicarbonate
From the cells in the intestinal epithelium
Secreted by pancreas
Protects intestinal mucosal barrier
56
Digestive enzymes organ of secretion
Secreted by pancreas
57
What is secreted into the lumen of the small intestine once the pyloric sphincter opens and food enters the duodenum
Bicarbonate
Digestive enzymes
and bile acids
58
Maltose
2 glucose mlc
59
Sucrose
Fructose + glucose
60
Lactose
Galactose + glucose
61
Starch
Chain of glucose
62
Where do enzymes act on carbohydrate molecules
The brush border breaking them down into their polymers.
They can then be absorbed by the villi into the bloodstream via capillaries 
63
 Why do coeliac disease people seem lactose intolerant
 Usually a deficiency in lactase causes lactose intolerance in the case of celiac, villi flatten, and there’s less absorption of lactose, some symptoms of lactose intolerant with gluten free diet. This will resolve. 
64
Protein digestion 
 Begins in the stomach, strong acidic environment pepsin stomach acid breaks polypeptides into smaller fragments by breaking the peptide bonds
epithelial cells secrete peptidase to break down larger peptides into an individual amino acids.
Amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported throughout the body in order to produce energy in liver or proteins synthesis
65
Lipid digestion 
 Begins in the mouth, proceed in the stomach gastric lipase in stomach breaks down triglycerides. It continues to be digested in the small intestine through fat emulsification, which is facilitated by bile salts that break down large fat globules lipase also helps
66
 Emulsifying fat 
Making fat soluble with bile
when you have large, lipid globule that is being broken down into smaller globules, facilitated by bile salts.
chyme moves into small intestine.
Bile is released by gallbladder

67
Amphipatic
Hydrophilic and Lipophilic
Ex bile salts
68
Micelles
 Rings of phospholipids
key role = help your body absorb different vitamins (ADEK) fat soluble
69
 lipid absorption and transport
Absorbed as fatty acids and mono glycerides by brush wall,
they are then reassembled as triglycerides after brush wall, and packed as chylomicrons 
70
Chylomicrons
Type of Lipo protein molecule that helps to transport triglycerides and other lipids and proteins
too large to cross capillary wall/too large for bloodstream
first absorbed in lymphatic system will re-enter circulation via thoracic duct near the heart
71
How are chylomicrons absorbed
First absorbed in lymphatic system since too big for blood stream, then they re-enter circulation via thoracic duct near the heart 
72
What comes from ileum? (ileocal valve
Ileum chyme
Any unabsorbed nutrients
Hormones and chemical messengers
Soluble fibre
Insoluble fibre
Microbes(Probiotic and other) bacteria
Cellular debris
Excretion products from liver
73
What happens in the large intestine? (Cecum and colon)
Absorption of water and simple ions(potassium, magnesium, and calcium.)
resident microbes digest and absorb pre-biotics in a process called fermentation,
resident microbes produce some vitamins, (vitamin K some B vitamins) as a byproduct of their metabolism.
4. newly arriving live microbes, probiotic and others seek to get a foothold in the microbio ecosystem and multiply. 
74
Fermentation
Process where resident microbes of the large intestine, absorb prebiotics producing short, chain fatty acids 
75
 What motivates you to eat 
Hedonic, hunger, and homeostatic hunger 
76
Hedonic, hunger 
The drive to eat to obtain pleasure in the absence of an energy deficit
77
Homeostatic, hunger 
Increased motivation to eat, following depletion of energy stores
78
Energy 
The capacity to do work 
79
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
Medium of energy exchange, energy currency of cell
80
 What generates most of ATP
Glucose and fatty acid metabolism. (There’s relatively little from amino acids)
ETC
some is generated by glycolysis and Krebs cycle. 
81
reducing equivalents
NADH and FADH2
Products of glycolysis, beta oxidation and Krebs cycle
82
NADH and FADH
Supply protons (H+) and electrons (e-) to ETC
83
Where is most of ATP made? 
Electron transport chain, ETC
84
How can ATP be generated without O2? 
Phosphocreatine degradation
9-10 seconds worth
Phosphate creatine decreases quickly in the onset of exercise, like sprinting depleting completely in 10 seconds 
85
How is ATP rebuilt? 
By adding a phosphate to ADP 
86
End product of glycolysis in anaerobic conditions 
Lactate some ATP 
87
Glycolysis
Glucose —-> pyruvate
88
Beta oxidation
Breakdown of fatty acids 
89
Fat storage 
Mostly stored as triglycerides in our adipocytes 
90
Carbohydrate storage breakdown, 
150g (approx) - as glycogen in liver (high concentration, less mass)
350g (approx) -as glycogen in muscle (most amnt, low concentration)
30g - glucose in blood
91
Protein storage 
Protein Represents a large potential energy source it is protected,
but will be used in starvation or caloric restriction 40% of body mass is muscle 
92
Pros and cons of carbohydrates as fuel 
Pros: can generate ATP slightly faster than fat used during exercise can also generate ATP anaerobically 
Cons: hold a lot of water is heavier and less energy dense than fat 
93
Pros And cons of fat as fuel
Pros: Doesn’t hold water more than twice as energy dense as carbohydrate
Most abundant energy reserve
Cons:
 can’t provide energy anaerobically must have oxygen
94
Absorptive state 
First 3 to 4 hours after a meal
Energy macronutrients are stored
Excess nutrients taken up will be stored Anabolism
95
Where are glycogen carbohydrates stored in the absorptive state 
In the liver and muscle 
96
Where are triglycerides, stored during absorptive state 
Stored in adipose, tissue, liver and muscle 
97
What happens to excess calories in the form of glucose or amino acids during the absorptive state
They get converted to fat 
98
Post absorptive state
Fasting
Stored macronutrients are mobilized for energy (catabolism)
Glucose is spared for nervous system
99
Glucogenesis
Making glucose from non carbohydrate precursors
Occurs in liver but also in kidneys
100
Normal fasting blood glucose levels
4-5.5 mmol/L (very narrow range)
101
Fatty acid fasting levels
0.2–2 mmol/L
102
Fasting hyperglycaemia vs fasting hypoglycaemia
Hyper= glucose >7mmol/L
Hypo= glucose < 3.5 mmol/L
103
Why is blood glucose maintained so tightly? 
Many cells require a glucose example of neural tissue and kidney
Main osmotic, balance, optimal concentrations of electrolyte, a non-electrolyte are maintained
Hyperglycaemia can cause glycosylation of amino acids in kidneys, peripheral nerves and lines of eyes causing nonreversible damage 
104
What secretes insulin when
Beta cells in the pancreas secrete insulin when blood glucose is elevated 
105
What secretes glucagon and when?
Cells and pancreas secrete glucagon when blood glucose is low 
106
Situations that challenge energy distribution system
Excercise, sprinting
107
Prolonged low intensity, exercise fuel
Plasma, blood glucose and fatty acids muscle, triglycerides and glycogen 
108
Moderate to high intensity, exercise fuel 
As you increase the intensity, there is an increase need to mobilize energy stores substrates within the muscle itself, muscle glycogen and triglycerides and some blood glucose and fatty acids 
109
High intensity, exercise fuel 
Muscle glycogen is predominant fuel used during high intensity exercise
110
SNP
single nucleotide polymorphisms
represents a difference in a single nucleotide
1 every 300 nucleotides
Major source that distinguishes one individual from another
111
Most frequent source for polymorphic changes
SNPs
But not the only source for polymorphic changes
112
Nutritional genomics
Lifestyle interacts with genes to influence health and athletic performance outcome/response
Different genotypes can influence the way your body metabolizes different nutrients and things
SNPs of different genotypes can improve and modify or impair performance
113
Result of increase in inflammatory cytokines
Aging is associated with an increase in that
Contributes to various age related disorders (ex. Alzheimer’s, cardiovascular disease and arthritis)
114
Interleukin-6
IL-6
An inflammatory cytokine
Plasma levels positively correlated with greater mortality
SNP in promoter is associated with increased IL-6 and mortality rate
115
Polymorphism
A dna sequence variation common in the population
116
Promoter
Region of the dna that initiates transcription of a particular gene
117
How many times more frequent is mitochondrial DNA damage than nuclear genome
10X
118
Mitochondrial dna damage cause
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
119
Reactive oxygen species
Highly reactive chemical species containing oxygen
Can lead to protein damage, nuclear dna damage which can lead to apoptosis which leads to aging
- peroxides
- superoxides
- hydroxyl radical
- singlet oxygen
120
More damaged mitochondria —>
More reactive oxygen species
121
DNA polymerase gamma:
Replicates and proof reads / repairs mitochondrial DNA
122
What happens as you age
Accumulating mutations in mitochondria accelerate
Errors in replication become more frequent
123
What can reduce the effects of aging
Excercise!! Can significantly reduce the effects of aging as seen in study where excercise resulted in 58% reduction of diabetes
124
Enterkinase
Activates enzymes from pancreas at the brush border to their active forms
125
Sinoatrial node
Hearts natural pacemaker
Electric signals are propagated here
126
Small intestinal mucosa
- lining of the small intestine
- lined with intestinal epithelial cells
127
Intestinal epithelial cells
Cells that line intestines and they are responsible for absorbing nutrients
128
What happens as you increase exercise intensity in regards to fuel source 
As you increase exercise intensity, more fuel from muscles, such as glucose, glycogen, stored in muscles and fatty acids are utilized 
