Lesson 5: Madison and the War of 1812

Question 1

Andrew Jackson Definition

Answer 1

the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837. He was a military hero during the War of 1812 and the Seminole Wars. He supported full democratic rights for all white men, Indian removal, and a limited federal government.

Question 2

Battle of Lake Erie Definition

Answer 2

in the War of 1812, a U.S. victory over the British, under the leadership of Oliver Perry

Question 3

Battle of New Orleans Definition

Answer 3

at the end of the War of 1812, a battle between British and U.S. forces, led by Andrew Jackson, that ended in a victory for the United States

Question 4

Battle of Tippecanoe Definition

Answer 4

in 1811, a battle over white settlement in the Indiana Territory

Question 5

Confederation Definition

Answer 5

an alliance of independent states or nations, usually with a shared military command

Question 6

Hartford Convention Definition

Answer 6

a gathering of New Englanders to protest the War of 1812 at which some threatened to secede from the Union

Question 7

Henry Clay Definition

Answer 7

a leading member of the House of Representatives for Kentucky under Presidents Madison and Monroe who spoke for the interests of the West, and who later served as a U.S. senator and Secretary of State

Question 8

Nationalism Definition

Answer 8

a feeling of excessive pride in one’s nation

Question 9

Treaty of Ghent definition

Answer 9

a peace treaty signed by Britain and the United States in 1814 to end the War of 1812

Question 10

Treaty of Greenville Definition

Answer 10

the treaty signed by some Native Americans in 1795, giving up land that would later become part of Ohio

Question 11

War Hawks Definition

Answer 11

the members of Congress from the South and the West who called for war with Britain prior to the War of 1812

Question 12

What was the conflict in Ohio? What did the treaty of Greenville state?

Answer 12

Fighting often broke out between these Native American groups and the settlers. Isolated acts of violence led to larger acts of revenge. As both sides killed innocent people, warfare spread. In Ohio, Little Turtle of the Miamis and Blue Jacket of the Shawnees organized a resistance movement in 1791. Armed with British muskets and gunpowder, the Miamis and Shawnees drove white settlers from the area. President Washington had sent General Anthony Wayne into Ohio in 1794. Forces from the Delaware, Miami, Iroqouis, Wabash, and others gathered at a place called Fallen Timbers. They thought that Wayne would have trouble fighting there because fallen trees covered the land. But Wayne’s well-trained army pushed through the tangle of logs and defeated the Indians. In 1795, leaders of the Miamis and other Native American nations signed the Treaty of Greenville. They gave up land that would later become part of Ohio. In return, they received $20,000 and the promise of more money if they kept the peace.

Question 13

Who were the leaders of the Confederation that formed between the Indians after Ohio joined the Union? Which tribes were neutral? which tribes allied with the U.S.A.?

Answer 13

Ohio joined the Union in 1803. By then, white settlers were pushing beyond Ohio into the Indiana Territory. Angry Shawnee, Kickapoo, and Ottawa vowed to keep settlers from taking more Indian land. They included two Shawnee leaders: Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa (ten SKWAH tuh wuh), a religious leader also called the Prophet. The Kickapoo, Ottawa, Chippewa, and Piankashaw joined with the Shawnee leaders. The Miami initially remained neutral. The Wyandot, Seneca, and Delaware stayed allied with the United States. So did the Chocktaw, Cherokee, Chickasaw, and some sections of the Creek. The U.S. government had treaties with several of these Native American groups that said both sides would cease fighting. The treaties kept these groups from rallying together against the United States.

Question 14

What did the Prophet and Tecumseh teach to strengthen the power of Native Americans to resist white invaders? What village did the Prophet build along the Tippecanoe Creek? Why were white leaders impressed by Tecumseh’s work?

Answer 14

The Prophet and Tecumseh taught that white customs corrupted the Indian way of life. They said that many Indians depended too much on white trade goods, such as muskets, cloth, cooking pots, and whiskey. They believed that by returning to their old ways, Native Americans could gain the power to resist the white invaders. In 1808, the Prophet built a village for his followers along Tippecanoe Creek in Indiana Territory. Indians from lands as far away as Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota traveled to Prophetstown to hear his message. Tecumseh worked to organize the tribes of the Northwest into a confederation, or alliance with a shared military command. He called for unity against settlers:

The whites have driven us from the great salt water, forced us over the mountains. … The way, the only way, to check and stop this evil is for all red men to unite in claiming a common equal right in the land.

—Tecumseh, quoted in Tecumseh: Vision of Glory (Tucker)

Tecumseh impressed white leaders. Governor William Henry Harrison grudgingly admitted, “He is one of those uncommon geniuses which spring up occasionally to produce revolutions and overturn the established order of things.”

Question 15

What happened in the Battle of Tippecanoe?

Answer 15

Rivalries among Native American nations kept Tecumseh from uniting all Indians east of the Mississippi River. Still, white settlers were alarmed at his success. In 1811, Harrison marched 1,000 soldiers against Prophetstown on the Tippecanoe Creek. The Prophet was in charge because Tecumseh was away trying to organize Indians in the South. The Prophet led a surprise night attack on Harrison’s troops. Both sides suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Tippecanoe. In the end, Harrison’s troops defeated the Prophet’s forces and destroyed Prophetstown. Whites celebrated the battle as a major victory. Still, Tecumseh and his followers continued to resist white settlement.

Question 16

How did the British support of Native Americans influence the War of 1812?

Answer 16

Fighting with Native Americans hurt relations between the United States and Britain. The British were supplying guns and ammunition to the Native Americans on the frontier. They also encouraged Indians to attack United States settlements.

Question 17

How did the offer of opening trade to France or Britain, if they respected American neutrality, influence the War of 1812?

Answer 17

Meanwhile, the ban on trade with Britain and France expired. Congress then authorized President Madison to make a tantalizing offer. If either the British or French stopped seizing American ships, the United States would reopen trade with that nation. Napoleon quickly announced that France would respect American neutrality. Britain did not respond to the offer. As promised, the United States resumed trade with France, but continued to ban all shipments to or from Britain.

Question 18

Which groups, along with Madison, did not want war with Britain? Which group wanted war with Britain? Who was the leader of this group? How did nationalism influence their opinions?

Answer 18

While Madison did not want war, other Americans were not as cautious. In New England, antiwar feelings ran strong. However, members of Congress from the South and the West called for war. They were known as War Hawks. War Hawks were stirred by a strong sense of nationalism, or devotion to one’s country. War Hawks felt that Britain was treating the United States as if it were still a British colony. They were willing to fight a war to defend American rights. The most outspoken War Hawk was Henry Clay of Kentucky. Clay wanted to punish Britain for seizing American ships. He also hoped to conquer Canada. “The militia of Kentucky are alone [able] to place Montreal and Upper Canada at your feet,” Clay boasted to Congress. War Hawks saw other advantages of war with Britain. If Americans went to war with Britain, War Hawks said, the United States could seize Florida from Britain’s ally, Spain. They also pointed out that Britain was arming Native Americans on the frontier and encouraging them to attack settlers. The War Hawks felt that winning a war against Britain would bring lasting safety to settlers on the frontier.

Question 19

When was the War of 1812 declared? What events led to this declaration, at the conflict’s peak?

Answer 19

The United States and Britain drifted closer to war as the security of American ships remained an issue. The British continued to board American ships and impress American seamen. To cut off American trade with France, British warships blockaded some American ports. In May 1811, near New York Harbor, a brief battle broke out between an American frigate and a British warship. The Americans crippled the British ship and left 32 British sailors dead or wounded. The War Hawks urged Congress to prepare for war. Others in Congress disagreed. John Randolph of Virginia warned that the people of the United States would “not submit to be taxed for this war of conquest and dominion.” Representatives of New England were especially concerned. They feared that the British navy would attack New England seaports. At last, President Madison gave in to war fever. In June 1812, he asked Congress to declare war on Britain. The House and Senate both voted in favor of war. Americans would soon learn, though, that declaring war was easier than winning.

Question 20

Why was Britain surprised when America declared war?

Answer 20

The American declaration of war took the British by surprise. They were locked in a bitter struggle with Napoleon and could not spare troops to fight the United States. As the war began, however, the United States faced difficulties of its own.

Question 21

What were the American difficulties of building an army?

Answer 21

The United States was not ready for war. Because Jefferson had reduced spending on defense, the navy had only 16 ships to meet the huge British fleet. The army was small and ill equipped, and many of the officers knew little about warfare. “The state of the army,” said a member of Congress, “is enough to make any man who has the smallest love of country wish to get rid of it.” These problems made it difficult to maintain national security. Since there were few regular troops, the government relied on volunteers. Congress voted to give them a bounty of cash and land. The money was equal to about a year’s salary for most workers. Attracted by the high pay and the chance to own their own farms, young men eagerly enlisted. They were poorly trained, however, with little experience in battle. Many deserted after a few months.

Question 22

What was Isaac Hull’s influence in the War of 1812? Despite American Sea Captain victories, what mere influence did they have on the war?

Answer 22

The British navy blockaded American ports to stop American trade. Though unable to break the blockade, several American sea captains won stunning victories.
One famous battle took place early in the war, in August 1812. As he was sailing near Newfoundland, Isaac Hull, captain of the USS Constitution, spotted the British ship HMS Guerrière (geh ree AIR). For nearly an hour, the two ships jockeyed for position. At last, the guns of the Constitution roared into action. They tore holes in the sides of the Guerrière and shot off both masts. Stunned, the British captain had no choice but to surrender. American sea captains won other victories at sea. These victories cheered Americans but did little to win the war.

Question 23

True or False: One goal of the War Hawks was to conquer Canada. They were convinced that Canadians would welcome the chance to throw off British rule and join the United States.

Answer 23

True

Question 24

What was General William Hull’s influence on the War of 1812? How did British General Isaac Brock trick Americans in Canada? What happened in Canada on April 27, 1813?

Answer 24

General William Hull moved American troops into Canada from Detroit. The Canadians had only a few untrained troops to ward off the invasion. However, they were led by a clever British general, Isaac Brock. Brock paraded his soldiers in red coats to make it appear that experienced British troops were helping the Canadians. He also led Americans to think that a large number of Native Americans were fighting alongside the Canadians. Brock’s scare tactics worked. Hull retreated from Canada. Other attempts to invade Canada also failed. However, on April 27, 1813, U.S. soldiers crossed Lake Ontario and successfully captured York, present-day Toronto. The Americans seized British guns and supplies, and they set fire to public buildings.

Question 25

What happened in the Battle of Lake Erie?

Answer 25

In 1813, the Americans, armed with the guns and supplies they had seized at York, set out to win control of Lake Erie. Captain Oliver Hazard Perry had no fleet, so he designed and built his own ships. In September 1813, he sailed his tiny fleet against the British. During the Battle of Lake Erie, the British battered Perry’s own ship and left it helpless. Perry rowed over to another American ship and continued to fight. Finally, the Americans won the battle. Captain Perry wrote his message of victory on the back of an envelope: “We have met the enemy and they are ours.”

Question 26

What were some Native American losses in the War of 1812?

Answer 26

After losing control of Lake Erie, the British and their ally Tecumseh retreated from Detroit into Canada. General William Henry Harrison, veteran of Tippecanoe, pursued them. The Americans won a decisive victory at the Battle of the Thames (temz). Tecumseh died in the fighting. Without Tecumseh’s leadership, the Indian confederation soon fell apart.

Question 27

What happened in the Battle of the Horseshoe Bend?

Answer 27

While Tecumseh was defeated in Canada, some sections of the Creeks continued their fight against U.S. settlers in the South. Andrew Jackson, a Tennessee officer, took command of American troops in the Creek War. In March 1814, with the help of Cherokees, Choctaws, and friendly Creeks, Jackson won a crushing victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. The leader of the enemy Creeks walked alone into Jackson’s camp to surrender. “Your people have destroyed my nation,” he said.

Question 28

How did the British burn down the White House?

Answer 28

In the spring of 1814, Britain and its allies defeated France. With the war in Europe over, Britain could send more troops and ships against the United States.
In August 1814, British ships sailed into Chesapeake Bay and landed an invasion force about 30 miles from Washington, D.C. American troops met the British at Bladensburg, Maryland. As President Madison watched, the battle-hardened British quickly scattered the untrained Americans. The British met little further resistance on their march to the capital. In the White House, First Lady Dolley Madison waited for her husband to return. Hastily, she scrawled a note to her sister:

Will you believe it, my sister? We have had a battle or skirmish near Bladensburg and here I am still within sound of the cannon! Mr. Madison comes not. May God protect us. Two messengers covered with dust come bid me fly. But here I mean to wait for him.

—Dolley Madison, Memoirs and Letters of Dolley Madison

Soon after, British troops marched into the capital. Dolley Madison gathered up important papers of the President and a portrait of George Washington. Then, she fled south. She was not there to see the British set fire to the White House and other buildings. The British considered this an act of revenge for the burning of York.

Question 29

What happened in the Battle of Baltimore? What was Francis Scott Key’s influence in the Battle?

Answer 29

From Washington, the British marched north toward the city of Baltimore. The key to Baltimore’s defense was Fort McHenry on Baltimore Harbor. From the evening of September 13 until dawn on September 14 during the Battle of Baltimore, British rockets bombarded the harbor.
When the early morning fog lifted, the “broad stripes and bright stars” of the American flag still waved over Fort McHenry. American forces had won the Battle of Baltimore. The British withdrew and the threat to the nation’s capital ended. Francis Scott Key, a young American lawyer who witnessed the battle, wrote a poem about it. Soon, his poem, “The Star-Spangled Banner,” was published and set to music. Today, it is the national anthem of the United States.

Question 30

What happened in the Battle of New Orleans? What was Andrew Jackson’s influence? Why was this battle a mistake?

Answer 30

In late 1814, the British prepared to attack New Orleans. From there, they hoped to sail up the Mississippi. However, Andrew Jackson was waiting. Jackson had turned his frontier fighters into a strong army. He took Pensacola in Spanish Florida to keep the British from using it as a base. He then marched through Mobile and set up camp in New Orleans. Jackson’s force included thousands of frontiersmen and Choctaws. The Choctaws were longtime rivals of the Indian nations who had been allied with the British. Many of Jackson’s troops were expert riflemen. Citizens of New Orleans also joined the army to defend their city from the British. Among the volunteers were hundreds of African Americans.
The American soldiers dug trenches to defend themselves. On January 8, 1815, the British attacked. Again and again, British soldiers marched toward the American trenches. More than 2,000 British fell under the deadly fire of American sharpshooters and, especially, American cannons. Only seven Americans died.
Americans cheered the victory at the Battle of New Orleans. Overnight, Andrew Jackson became a national hero. His fame did not dim even when Americans learned that the battle had taken place two weeks after the war had ended. The United States and Britain had already signed a treaty in Europe, but news took two months to cross the ocean by sail and had not yet reached the United States.

Question 31

What was the influence of African Americans in the War of 1812?

Answer 31

The Battle of New Orleans was not the only place where black and white soldiers fought side by side. Throughout the War of 1812, African Americans joined in defending the nation against the British. Following the British attacks on Washington and Baltimore, African American volunteers helped defend Philadelphia against a possible British attack. Bishop Richard Allen and the Reverend Absalom Jones recruited more than 2,000 men to help build Philadelphia’s fortifications. The state of New York organized two regiments of black volunteers to serve in the army. African Americans also served with distinction in the United States Navy. They helped win the Battle of Lake Erie as well as other naval battles. Commander Nathaniel Shaler praised one particular black sailor who was killed in battle:

He fell near me, and several times requested to be thrown overboard, saying he was only in the way of others. When America has such [sailors], she has little to fear from the tyrants of the ocean.

—Nathaniel Shaler, letter to his agent, January 1, 1813

Question 31

What was the influence of African Americans in the War of 1812?

Answer 31

The Battle of New Orleans was not the only place where black and white soldiers fought side by side. Throughout the War of 1812, African Americans joined in defending the nation against the British. Following the British attacks on Washington and Baltimore, African American volunteers helped defend Philadelphia against a possible British attack. Bishop Richard Allen and the Reverend Absalom Jones recruited more than 2,000 men to help build Philadelphia’s fortifications. The state of New York organized two regiments of black volunteers to serve in the army. African Americans also served with distinction in the United States Navy. They helped win the Battle of Lake Erie as well as other naval battles. Commander Nathaniel Shaler praised one particular black sailor who was killed in battle:

He fell near me, and several times requested to be thrown overboard, saying he was only in the way of others. When America has such [sailors], she has little to fear from the tyrants of the ocean.

—Nathaniel Shaler, letter to his agent, January 1, 1813

Question 32

What was Cyrus Tiffany’s influence in the War of 1812?

Answer 32

Cyrus Tiffany, an African American sailor shown here with his hand on the coat of Captain Oliver H. Perry, helped save the captain’s life at the Battle of Lake Erie.

Question 33

What were New Englanders doing while Andrew Jackson prepared to fight the British at New Orleans?

Answer 33

By late 1814, Americans knew that peace talks had begun, but they did not know if they would succeed or how long they would last. As Jackson was preparing to fight the British at New Orleans, New Englanders were meeting to protest “Mr. Madison’s War.”

Question 34

Why was the Hartford Convention formed? Why did it end so quickly?

Answer 34

The British blockade had hurt New England’s sea trade. Also, many New Englanders feared that the United States might win land in Florida and Canada. If new states were carved out of these lands, the South and the West would become more influential than New England. Delegates from around New England met in Hartford, Connecticut, in December 1814. Most were Federalists. They disliked the Democratic Republican President and the war. Some delegates to the Hartford Convention threatened to nullify, or cancel, the state of war in their states if the war continued. Others threatened to leave the Union. Then, while the delegates debated what to do, news of the peace treaty arrived. The Hartford Convention ended quickly. With the war over, the protest was meaningless. In the end, the threat of secession further weakened the dying Federalist party.

Question 35

What was the impact of the Treaty of Ghent?

Answer 35

A peace treaty was signed in the city of Ghent, in present-day Belgium, on December 24, 1814. John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams and one of the American delegates, summed up the Treaty of Ghent in one sentence: “Nothing was adjusted, nothing was settled.”

Question 36

What agreements were reached at the end of the War of 1812? How did Americans view the war?

Answer 36

Britain and the United States agreed to restore prewar conditions. The treaty said nothing about impressment or neutrality. These issues had faded due to the end of the wars in Europe. Other issues were settled later. In 1818, for example, the two nations settled a dispute over the border between Canada and the United States. Looking back, some Americans felt that the War of 1812 had been a mistake. Others argued that Europe would now treat the young republic with more respect. The victories of heroes like Oliver Hazard Perry, William Henry Harrison, and Andrew Jackson gave Americans new pride in their country. As one Democratic Republican leader remarked, “The people are now more American. They feel and act more as a nation.”