Level 2 Fitness Instructor Online Theory Flashcards
(158 cards)
1
Q
How many bones does the adult skeleton have?
A
206 (80 axial 126 appendicular).
2
Q
Name the 5 regions of the spine and how many vertebrae are in each. (5)
A
7 cervical 12 thoracic 5 lumbar 5 fused sacral 4 fused coccygeal.
3
Q
Describe kyphosis, why is happens and how to help.(3)
A
Hunch back, curvature of thoracic spine, men who neglect muscular balance at more risk, usually due to weak back extensor muscles or sitting at a desk
Ensure you train your back and be mindful of posture and form.
4
Q
Describe lordosis, why is happens and how to help.(3)
A
Pot belly stance, curve of lumbar spine inwards, usually due to pregnancy pot bellies or weak torso muscles due to sedentary lifestyle
`Ensure abdominal training to correct lordosis.
5
Q
Describe scoliosis, why is happens and how to help.(3)
A
Lateral deviation in spine, usually due to genetic factors but may also be due to uneven strain placed on one side of the body
Specialised program required to rebalance the spine, not easily corrected.
6
Q
How many RBC and WBC does the bone marrow produce?(1)
A
60-70% WBC and all RBC and platelets.
7
Q
What are the storage minerals in the bone?(3)
A
Bones serve as a storage area for mineral salts, especially calcium, magnesium phosphate and phosphorus. When required, minerals can be released into the blood to maintain mineral balance. A deficiency in these minerals can contribute to bones becoming weaker and brittle (a condition known as osteoporosis)
8
Q
What happens with bone marrow (myeloid tissue) as we age?(3)
A
Bones store marrow (known as myeloid tissue), which is soft, gelatinous tissue that fills the cavities of the bones. 1)At birth and until about the age of seven, all human marrow is red, as the need for new blood formation is high.
2) Thereafter, fat tissue gradually replaces the red marrow.
3) In adults, red marrow is found only in the vertebrae, hips, breastbone (sternum), ribs and skull and at the ends of the long bones of the arm and leg; other cancellous or spongy bones and the central cavities of the long bones are filled with yellow marrow.
9
Q
6 Functions of the skeleton.(6)
A
Structure/ Shape Movement Support Protection Storage Production.
10
Q
6 bone types.(6)
A
- Long bones
- Short bones
- Sesamoid bones
- Sutural bones
- Irregular bones
- Flat bones
11
Q
Long bones. (3)
A
- Longer than they are wide
- Function to support the weight of the body and facilitate movement
- Mostly located in the appendicular skeleton and include bones in the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals and phalanges) and bones in the upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals and phalanges).
12
Q
Short bones. (3)
A
- As long as they are wide (cube-shaped)
- Provide stability and some movement
- Located in the wrist and ankle joints: the carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid and trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform and medial cuneiform).
13
Q
Flat bones. (3)
A
- Somewhat flattened and can provide protection, like a shield; flat bones can also provide large areas of attachment for muscles
- Function to protect internal organs such as the brain, heart and pelvic organs
- Located in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal and vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs and the scapulae) and the pelvis (ilium, ischium and pubis).
14
Q
Sesamoid bones. (4)
A
- Bones that are embedded in tendons
- Typically small, round bones
- Function to protect tendons from stress and wear
- Located in the tendons of the hands, knees and feet. The patella (commonly referred to as the kneecap) is an example of a sesamoid bone.
15
Q
Irregular bones. (2)
A
- Vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any other category (flat, short, long or sesamoid)
- They often have a fairly complex shape, which helps to protect internal organs, for example, the facial bones. The vertebrae (irregular bones of the vertebral column) protect the spinal cord.
16
Q
Major advantage to cancellous/trabecular bone.(1)
A
A major advantage to the honeycomb structure of bone is that it can be strong for only a small amount of material, which helps to make it light (important, so that humans do not expend too much energy to move around).
17
Q
Give 2 examples of how bone function effects its structure. (2)
A
Vertebrae: subject to primarily compressive or tensile forces; usually have thin cortices and provide necessary structural rigidity through trabeculae
Femurs: subject to prominent bending, shear or torsional forces; usually have thick cortices, a tubular configuration and a continuous cavity running through their centres (medullary cavity).
18
Q
Long bone anatomy components. (12)
A
- Epiphysis: the expanded portion at each end of the bone
- Epiphyseal growth plate: the cartilaginous region where growth in the length of the bone occurs
- Diaphysis: the shaft of the bone
- Metaphysis: the wide portion between the epiphysis and the narrow diaphysis. It contains the growth plate – the part of the bone that grows during childhood
- Articular hyaline cartilage: covers the bone ends
- Periosteum: a tough, fibrous fascial sheath covering the whole bone
- Compact / cortical bone: solid, strong and resistant to bending
- Cancellous / trabecular bone: gives the bone elastic strength to resist compression forces
- Medullary cavity: the hollow cavity down the centre of the compact bone
- Endosteum: the membrane that lines the cavity
- Red or yellow marrow: produces blood cells or stores fat, respectively
- Blood vessels: in a typical long bone, blood is supplied by three routes: i) an artery to the diaphysis and metaphysis, ii) an artery to the periosteum and outer cortical bone, and iii) an artery to the epiphysis and cartilage.
19
Q
Name the 3 types of joint.(3)
A
Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.
20
Q
Structure and function of fibrous joint, give an example.(3)
A
- Bones held together by fibrous connective tissue (no synovial cavity or fluid)
- Immovable joint
- Sutures between the cranial bones of the skull. Syndesmoses between the tibia and fibula (fibrous but slightly movable). Gomphoses between the roots of the teeth.
21
Q
Structure and function of cartilaginous joint, give an example.(3)
A
- Bones held together by cartilage (no synovial cavity or fluid)
- Slightly movable joint
- Sternocostal joint of the first rib and sternum (cartilaginous but immovable - hyaline cartilage). Epiphyseal plate between the diaphysis and epiphysis of growing bones (cartilaginous but immovable - hyaline cartilage). Pubic symphysis between the anterior surfaces of hip bones (cartilaginous but slightly movable and connected by fibrocartilage disc). Intervertebral discs between vertebrae (cartilaginous but slightly movable and connected by a fibrocartilage disc). Sacrococcygeal joint between the sacrum and coccyx (cartilaginous but slightly movable and connected by fibrocartilage disc cartilage).
22
Q
Structure and function of synovial joint, give an example.(3)
A
-Joint contains a synovial cavity containing fluid secreted by the synovial membrane. Bones forming the joint are surrounded by an articular capsule
-Freely movable joint
-6 types:
Hinge
Ball and socket
Pivot
Gliding or plane
Saddle
Condyloid / ellipsoid.
23
Q
Name the 6 types of synovial joint.(6)
A
Hinge Ball and socket Pivot Gliding or plane Saddle Condyloid / ellipsoid.
24
Q
Give examples of hinge joints in the body.(1)
A
The joints between the bones of the fingers (phalanges) and that between the ulna (inner bone of the forearm) and the humerus at the elbow, along with that between the femur and tibia, are all classic examples.
25
Give examples of ball&socket joints in the body.(1)
It is most highly developed in the large hip and shoulder joints of mammals, including humans, in which it provides swing for the arms and legs in various directions and also spin of those limbs upon the more-stationary bones (e.g. at the shoulder and hip joints).
26
Give examples of ellipsoid/condyloid joints in the body.(1)
The joint between the second metacarpal and the first phalanx of the second finger is a good example. It allows the finger to flex and extend, to swing towards or away from its neighbouring finger, and to swing forward with a slight amount of rotation. A further example is the joint between the radius and the carpus (the radiocarpal joint).
27
Give examples of pivot joints in the body.(1)
The pivot joint is exemplified by the joint between the atlas and the axis (the first and second cervical vertebrae), directly under the skull, which allows turning of the head side to side. Pivot joints also provide for the twisting movement of the bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) against the upper arm – a movement used, for instance, in unscrewing the lid of a jar.
28
Give examples of saddle joints in the body.(1)
An example of a saddle joint is the carpometacarpal (base) joint of the thumb. The thumb can be swung from side to side or from behind to forward, but the most frequent movement is that in which the thumb swings so that it comes ‘face to face’ with one or another of the fingers, as in grasping a needle or a ball. This movement is called opposition (i.e. of thumb to fingers). During opposition, the thumb is rotated around its long axis; it has been said that human civilisation depends upon the opposition of the thumb!
29
Give examples of gliding/plane joints in the body.(1)
Examples are the joints between the metacarpal bones of the hand and those between the cuneiform (tarsal) bones of the foot, along with the joint formed between the clavicle and the scapula (the acromioclavicular joint).
30
3 main categories for connective tissue (fascial web).(3)
Cartilage
Ligaments
Tendons
Recent evidence shows this is innervated.
31
3 types of cartilage.(3)
Hyaline (articular) cartilage-most common
elastic
fibrocartilage.
32
Hyaline (articular) cartilage.(5)
Is the most common type
Is tough, smooth and thin
Is blue-white in colour
Is found covering bone ends to form joints
Becomes slippery when lubricated with synovial fluid, thus reducing friction and allowing optimal joint movement.
33
Elastic cartilage.(5)
Has a structure similar to hyaline cartilage
Has more fibres than hyaline cartilage
Has most of its fibres made up of elastin as opposed to collagen
Has the ability to spring back into shape immediately due to the properties of elastin
Can be found in the ear, the walls of the Eustachian tube (the tube that runs from the middle ear to the pharynx) and the epiglottis – all places that require maintenance of a specific shape.
34
Fibrocartilage.(3)
Fibrocartilage is thicker and stronger than the other two forms of cartilage and has limited distribution within the body.
It forms various shapes according to its role and it acts as a shock absorber in cartilaginous joints,
such as the meniscus in the knee and between the intervertebral discs.
35
4 main functions of ligaments.(4)
- To connect bone to bone
- To enhance joint stability
- To guide joint motion
- To prevent excessive motion in the joint.
Ligaments are tough, white, non-elastic fibrous tissue, strung together in a cord- or strap-like formation. They attach bone to bone in all joints, thus providing joint stability and allowing normal movement but preventing unwanted movement. For example, the hip joints have seven thick, strong, short ligaments each to give joint stability. They will withstand tension, but prolonged tension will permanently damage the fibres.
36
Difference between ligaments and tendons?(1)
Tendons are similar to ligaments but play a different role in the body. Their functions include attaching muscle to bone and transmitting the force produced by the muscle. The layers of fasciae that run through the muscle become the tendon as they envelope the muscle and become continuous with the periosteum of the bone.
37
Give 2 examples of the short term effects of exercise on the bones.(2)
Direct- Smoother joint articulation due to secretion of synovial fluid, increase temp from movement lessens viscosity of fluid=easier to move
Indirectly-Through other tissues eg fascia allowing for better control (accuracy) and stability in extremes of the ROM.
38
Give 1 long term effect of exercise on bones.(1)
Long term, the condition of bone may be improved by exercise as it responds to mechanical stresses. These mechanical stresses usually take the form of skeletal muscles pulling at their points of attachment (their origin (where the muscle starts) and their insertion (where the muscle ends)). It has been shown that more mineral salts are deposited and more collagenous fibres are produced where these mechanical stresses are applied most frequently. Therefore, both the density and size of bone in these areas may be increased, and these changes in bone structure are stimulated by increased loads being placed on the skeleton. This has been borne out by greater bone mass being observed in weightlifters than in lighter endurance athletes such as joggers. Other examples include racquet players, who have been shown to have greater bone density in their playing arms. It has been shown that if a leg is immobilised by being placed in a cast, after only a few weeks, the bone density becomes greatly affected by the lack of mechanical stress.
39
Good exercises for those at risk of osteoporosis. (1)
An appropriate form of exercise prescription for improving bone density is loading the bone end to end (compressive forces). This means the resistance should load the bone along the shaft; for example, a shoulder press places the load so that it travels down the shaft of the ulna and humerus, whereas a lateral raise will not load the bone end-to-end.
40
Give 4 examples of end-to-end vs non-end-to-end loading exercises.(4)
Chest presses vs. flat bench flies
Running and aerobics vs. leg curls and leg extensions
Push-ups / press-ups vs. pullovers
Back squats vs. hip / glute bridges.
41
What is the anatomical position.(1)
Stood up palms facing in the direction of the body/face.
42
Flexion.(1)
Flexion is a decrease in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the articulating bones. Exceptions to this are the knee and toe joints, where there is a decrease in the angle between the posterior surfaces of the articulating bones. eg elbow flexion in a bicep curl is moving the hand (bending) from anatomical up to the curl.
43
Extension.(1)
Extension is an increase in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the articulating bones. Exceptions to this are the knee and the toe joints, where there is an increase in the angle between the posterior surfaces of the articulating bones. eg following flexion for a bicep curl returning back to the anatomical position would be extension.
44
Lateral flexion/extension.(2)
Lateral flexion is a decrease in the angle between the lateral surfaces of the articulating bones of the vertebrae. This occurs in the spine only, when leaning to one side.
Lateral extension is an increase in the angle between the lateral surfaces of the articulating bones of the vertebrae. This occurs in the spine only, when leaning to one side.
45
Dorsiflexion.(2)
Dorsiflexion describes a specific movement of the foot / ankle. Dorsiflexion refers to 'dorsal' and 'flexion'. Dorsal describes the back or upper side of body part (think of the dorsal fin of a dolphin).
Dorsiflexion represents a decrease in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the metatarsals and the tibia (shin). The action is flexing the foot upwards or moving the knee forwards over the fixed foot (e.g. squatting).
46
Plantar flexion.(2)
Plantar flexion is actually an extension of the ankle joint but is referred to as plantar flexion. In humans the sole of the foot is anatomically referred to as the plantar surface. It is an increase in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the metatarsals and the tibia (shin). The action is pointing your toes or standing upright from a deep squat position
47
Inversion/eversion.(2)
Inversion - is the movement where the sole of the foot is turned medially or inward. This results from the inward swing of the calcaneus (ankle)
Eversion - is the movement where the sole of the foot is turned laterally or outward. This results from the outward swing of the calcaneus. (ankle)
48
Hyperextension.(2)
Hyperextension is an increase in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the articulating bones where the joint moves past the anatomically neutral (and structurally safe) zone.
As an example, extension hypermobility might be seen at the elbow joint or a specific region of the spine. Excess motion may create uneven stresses to the structures in that area with potential degeneration and pain.
49
Abduction/adduction.(2)
Abduction is something moving away from midline of the body, adduction is moving towards the midline of the body.
50
Opposition.(1)
Opposition is where you bring the tip of the thumb across to the tip of each finger.
51
Depression/elevation.(2)
Depression is where we pull a joint down or return from elevation. A common example is 'setting' the shoulders down when performing a pulling exercise from overhead.
Elevation is where we raise a joint - for example shrugging the shoulders upwards during a high row exercise.
52
Supination/pronation.(2)
Supination – a movement of the forearm where the palm is turned anteriorly or superiorly (this movement is best shown with the elbow flexed; otherwise, the motion is likely to be derived from shoulder external rotation).
Pronation – a movement of the forearm where the palm is turned posteriorly or inferiorly (this movement is best shown with the elbow flexed; otherwise, the motion is likely to be derived from shoulder internal rotation).
53
Protraction/retraction.(2)
Protraction - moving a part forward (sliding the shoulders forward).
Retraction - moving a part backward (sliding the shoulders backward).
54
Circumduction.(1)
Circumduction – movement where the distal end of a bone moves in a circle whilst the proximal end remains still. It is important to note that this is not rotation.
55
Medial/lateral rotation.(2)
Medial (or Internal) Rotation is where the anterior surface of the bone or limb rotates towards the midline of the body.
Lateral (or External) Rotation is where the anterior surface of the bone or limb rotates away from the midline of the body.
56
Horizontal extension/abduction vs flexion/adduction.(2)
Horizontal extension / abduction is an increase in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the articulating bones, in the horizontal or transverse plane. This action occurs when you start with your arms at shoulder height directly in front of you and then move your hands away from each other while keeping your arms at shoulder height. This is referred to as horizontal extension / abduction of the shoulder joint.
Horizontal flexion / adduction is a decrease in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the articulating bones, in the horizontal or transverse plane. This action occurs when you start with your arms at shoulder height horizontally and then move your hands towards each other while keeping your arms at shoulder height. This is referred to as horizontal flexion / adduction of the shoulder joint.
57
Shoulder joint.(1)
Ball and socket
Most movements:
flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, internal / medial and external / lateral rotation, circumduction, horizontal flexion and horizontal extension.
58
Radio ulnar joints.(2)
Both pivot joints responsible from pronation and supination.
Proximal radio ulnar joint-this is located near the elbow and is an articulation between the head of the radius and the radial notch of the ulna
Distal radio ulnar joint- this is located near the wrist and is an articulation between the ulnar notch of the radius and the ulnar head.
59
Wrist joint.(1)
Condyloid
therefore allows flexion/extension, adduction/abduction.
60
Metacarpophalangeal joints.(1)
The metacarpophalangeal joint is a condyloid (or ellipsoid) joint.
Joint actions: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction (where the middle finger is the midline of the hand) and circumduction.
61
The first carpometacarpal joint.(1)
`Thumb joint is a saddle joint
| Joint actions: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, opposition and reposition.
62
Interphalangeal joints.(1)
Uniaxial hinge joints which allow for flexion/extension.
63
Intervertebral joints/spinal column.(1)
Allows collectively for:
| flexion, extension, hyperextension, lateral flexion and rotation.
64
Atlantoaxial joint.(1)
```
Pivot joint (C1 and C2) where get rotation via neck
the atlas and axis vertebrae are the two most-superior bones in the vertebral column.
```
Note:
The atlas and the occipital bone form the atlanto-occipital joint, which allows neck flexion (e.g. nodding the head).
65
Hip joint.(1)
Ball and socket joint like shoulder
Joint actions: flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, internal / medial and external / lateral rotation, circumduction, horizontal flexion and horizontal extension.
**Horizontal is with leg raised in the air flexed upward then moving in and out.
66
Talocrural joint.(1)
Ankle joint is a synovial hinge joint which allows for plantar flexion and dorsiflexion.
67
Subtalar and Intertarsal Joints.(2)
The subtalar joint is formed on an oblique axis and is therefore the chief site within the foot for the generation of eversion and inversion movements. It is formed by the talus and the calcaneus. The intertarsal joints are those between the tarsal bones of the foot (the navicular, cuboid and cuneiform bones).
68
Medio-lateral axis corresponding plane of movement.(1)
Sagittal (flexion/extension of frontal plane)
69
Longitudunal axis corresponding plane of movement.(1)
Transverse (rotation)
70
Anterior-posterior axis corresponding plane of movement.(1)
Frontal (abduction, adduction, lateral flexion, pronation, supination)
71
Prone/supine.(1)
Face down, face up.
72
What is stenosis?(1)
The stiffening and narrowing of the heart valves.
73
Different valves in the heart?(1)
Biscupid (mitral) is the left atrio-ventricular valve tricuspid is right atrio-ventricular valve
Then have the semi-lunar valves between the ventricles and aorta/pulmonary trunk.
74
Tidal volume/residual volume.(2)
Tidal volume is approx 500ml to prevent the lungs collapsing, the tidal volume is the volume of air that flows into and out of the lungs at rest. The average adukt breaths 12 breaths per minute.
Ventilation = Tidal Volume x Number of Breaths Per Minute
= 500 ml x 12/minute
= 6000 ml/minute (6 litres/minute).
75
Inspiration mechanism.(3)
1) An inward breath is started when the diaphragm contracts and descends; this increases the thoracic volume.
2) As this happens, the external intercostals contract, causing the ribcage to rise and flare, creating a further increase in thoracic volume, which expands the lungs.
3) In turn, the pressure within the lungs drops to below atmospheric pressure. External air flows into the body until the pressures are equal.
76
Expiration vs forced expiration mechanism.(3)
1) An outward breath starts with the relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostals. The ribcage drops and the diaphragm rises back into its original position. This decreases the intrathoracic volume, and
2) the elastic fibres in the lung tissue recoil to decrease the lung volume. The resulting increase in intrapulmonary pressure causes the expulsion of air.
vs
Forced:
Forced expiration is an active process produced by the contractions in the muscles surrounding the ribcage and those found in the abdominal region. The internal intercostals, latissimus dorsi and quadratus lumborum help to depress the ribcage. Contraction of the oblique and transverse muscles increases intra-abdominal pressure and forces the abdominal organs against the diaphragm. The muscle actions described above decrease the intrathoracic volume and increase intrapulmonary pressure.
77
Breathing rate during exercises.(1)
Although there is a greater need for oxygen to be delivered to the working muscles during exercise, it is the rise in carbon dioxide detected in the blood which is responsible for increasing breathing rate.
78
Blood composition.(4)
Plasma~55% (mainly water, also contains gases, hormones, enzymes, vitamins)
Erythrocytes (RBCs) ~45%
Thrombocytes (platelets) & Leukocytes (WBCs)~<1%
79
RBCs & WBCs.(3)
In every drop of blood there are approximately 240-270 million red blood cells (RBCs).
Produced in soft red bone marrow and contain Hb
Also produced in soft red bone marrow, transparent, immune response.
80
Bllod pressure.(3)
Taken on brachial artery, superior to elbow and anterior surface of the arm. Sphygmomanometer used. There are two readings which are taken to measure blood pressure:
1. Systolic Pressure is the pressure exerted when blood is forced out of the left ventricle into the aorta. The normal range for systolic pressure would be 110 to 130 mmHg
2. Diastolic Pressure is the pressure of blood in the arteries when the left ventricle is in diastole or relaxation. The normal range for diastolic pressure would be 70 to 90 mmHg.
81
Cardiac output.(1)
The amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle into the aorta per minute is referred to as the ‘cardiac output’ (Q). It is calculated by multiplying the amount of blood pumped from the left ventricle during each heartbeat (referred to as the ‘stroke volume’ (SV), which is measured in millilitres) by the number of heartbeats per minute (BPM, or the heart rate).
A healthy adult has a resting heart rate of 60–80 bpm. A well-trained athlete could have a resting heart rate of 35–50 bpm. Resting heart rate, however, does increase with age.
In the average adult, SV is approximately 70–80 ml per beat; in trained individuals, it can be as high as 100–110 ml per beat. SV increases with activity intensity and can be as high as 200 ml per beat.
CO or Q also increases in proportion to cardiorespiatory training intensity.
Example:
If SV = 70 ml
HR = 75 bpm
Q = 70 ml x 75 bpm = 5,250 ml/minute or 5.25 litres / minute.
82
Absolute vs relative intensity.(3)
Absolute would be a general intensity guide eg do 5mph on treadmill at 15% incline
Relative would be based on the individual eg do treadmill to reach 80% of MRH
VO2 max is the ceiling for aerobic activity intensity (max O2 used to create ATP via aerobic pathways)
VO2 reserve is the difference between your max and resting oxygen uptake
METS: the metabolic cost of performing an activity. One MET is the energy equivalent expended by an individual whilst seated at rest. Whilst exercising, the MET equivalent is the energy expended compared to rest, so MET values indicate intensity. An activity with a MET value of 5 means you are expending 5 times the energy (number of calories) than you would at rest
83
How to work out MHR?(1)
200-age
Only an estimate and females found to usually have a slightly higher one.
84
The PNS CNS number of nerve connections.(1)
31.
85
Different muscle subtypes.(3)
`Skeletal, cardiac, smooth.
86
4 characteristics of the ~650 muscles in the body.(4)
Excitability – the ability to receive and respond to external stimuli, such as a nerve impulse
Contractility – the ability to shorten (i.e. contract) when sufficient stimulus is received
Extensibility – the ability of muscle to stretch or lengthen beyond ‘normal’ range
Elasticity – the ability of muscle to return to its original shape after contraction or extension.
87
Bone attachments.(5)
Most skeletal muscle attaches to bones in order to produce movement. However, some skeletal muscle attaches directly to other muscles, fasciae or tissues such as the skin.
Tendons:
-Origin - the origin of a muscle is the stationary point at which the muscle attaches to the body (i.e. the fixed end)
Insertion - this is the attachment to the moving bone. It is normally the end that is distal to the origin.
-A tendon is a cord-like, fibrous connective tissue that connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension. At either end of the tendon, its fibres intertwine with the fasciae of a muscle or the periosteum (a dense fibrous covering of a bone), allowing force to be dissipated across the bone or muscle.
-Tendons mainly consist of closely packed collagen fibres running parallel to the force generated by the muscle to which they are attached. Intertwined with the collagen fibres are elastin molecules, which improve tendons’ elasticity.
-The elastic properties of tendons allow them to operate to store and release energy, like a spring. The most widely researched example is the Achilles tendon, which stores and releases elastic energy during walking, improving efficiency and reducing muscle energy output.
88
Fascial layers.(4)
- Periosteum: a tough fibrous fascia that envelopes bone and is continuous with the tendon
- Epimysium: envelopes entire muscle belly
- Perimysium: envelopes bundles of muscle fibres (known as fasciculi)
- Endomysium: envelopes single muscle fibres / cells.
89
Slow-twitch/type I muscle fibres.(3)
```
Structural features:
-A smaller diameter fibre size
-A large myoglobin content
-Many mitochondria
-Many capillaries
-Red in colour
-Low firing threshold.
Functional features:
-Increased oxygen delivery
-Produces less force
-Long-term contractions
-Resistant to fatigue.
Activities:
-Maintaining posture (i.e. stabilisation)
-Endurance-based activities.
```
90
Fast-twitch/type II muscle fibres (have IIa and IIb).(3)
```
Structural features:
-Larger diameter fibre size
-Smaller myoglobin content
-Fewer mitochondria
-Fewer capillaries
-White (pale) in colour
-High firing threshold.
Functional features:
-Decreased oxygen delivery
-Produces more force
-Short-term contractions
-Less resistant to fatigue.
Activities:
-Rapid, intense movements.
```
91
Difference between type IIa and IIb muscle fibres.(2)
IIa fast oxidative and glycolytic whereas IIb just glycolyitic,
IIa both aerobic and anaerobic whereas IIb just anaerobic, `IIb greater force production and less fatigue resistant, lower mitochondiral, capillary and endurance density too.
92
Types of muscular action.(3)
- Isotonic-eccentric(lengthen) and concentric(shorten) contractions causing movement and preventing. Concentric the origin and insertion distance increase and joint angle decreases (opposite for eccentric)
- Isometric-force exerted balances the opposing force-eg holding a box but can't lift it, but enough force to not drop it
- Isokinetic (usually through rehab machines-can't be done with free-weights and most cable machines).
93
Roles of muscles in movement.(4)
Agonist-prime mover that achieves desired movement
Antagonist-the opposite muscle which has been inhibited to allow the movement
Fixator-contracts to make the joint more stable eg hip adductors/abductors in lunge
Synnergist-assist with the movement.
94
Biceps Brachii.(2)
Origin: Long head on supragelnoid tubercle of the scapula, short head on coracoid process of the scapula
Insertion: radial tuberosity and fascia on the medial side of the forearm.
95
Brachioradialis.(2)
Origin: lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus
Insertion: Lower/lateral radius 9mid forearm)
Action: flexes forearm at elbow, assists with pronation/supination or forearm.
96
Brachialis.(3)
Deep muscle to biceps, flexes forearm at elbow
Origin: Anterior, distal half of humerus
Insertion: Coronoid process and tuberosity of the ulna
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Rhomboids.(3)
Deep muscle near, between shoulder blades
Origin: Spinous process of C7-T5 vertebre
Insertion: Medial border of scapula inferior and superior to the spine.
Action: Retracts scapula (row).
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Trapezius.(3)
Superficial muscle, grouped into 3 fibres (upper, middle, lower)
Origin: External proturbence of occipital bone (skull) to C1-7 and T1-12 (all thoracic vertebre)
Insertion: Lateral third of the clavicle, acromion process (flat portion of scapula) and horizontal spine of the scapula)
Action: Upper-elevate shoulder girdle, extend the neck middle-adduct/retract scapula, lower-depress scapula and upward rotation (raising arms above head)
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Lattisimus dorsi.(3)
Superficial large muscle
Origin: T7-S5 vertebrae, posterior iliac crest of the scarum, thoracolumbar fascia, last 3/4 ribs, inferior angle of the scapula
Insertion: Floor of the intertubercular (bicipital) groove of the humerus
Action: adduct, medially rotate, and extend arm at glenohumeral (shoulder) joint
100
Lancet 2011 comment on aerobic activity.(2)
Participants in the low-volume activity group who exercised for an average of 92 minutes per week, or approximately 15 minutes a day, experienced a 14% reduced risk of all-cause mortality and had a life expectancy 3 years longer than those in the inactive group.
A graded benefit to exercise was also seen in this population: for every 15 minutes of exercise added to the minimum daily amount of 15 minutes, all-cause mortality was further reduced by 4% and all-cancer mortality was reduced by 1%.
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What are the zones of aerobic intensity, what MHR it is, when it's recommended and the physiological adaptations.(5)
1) Maximal aerobic power (90-100% MHR-18-20 RPE) advised for well-conditioned individuals, for endurance sports prep-Improves fast-twitch (type II) fibre recruitment. Increased anaerobic enzymes. Increased VO2max
2) Aerobic performance (80-90% MHR-16-18 RPE) ideal for well-conditioned individuals may be useful for endurance comp prep-begins to recruit type II fibres, increases glycolysis efficiency and lactic acid clearance , increases anaerobic threshold
3) Aerobic fitness (70-80% MHR-14-16 RPE) sustaining this would be challenging for most, likely to induce adaptations and ii
inc' anaerobic threshold-improves type 1 fibres, inc aerobic enzymes, improves 02 transport, inc glycogen utilisation efficiency
4) Weight management (60-70%-12-14 RPE) known as 'fat burning' zone as hard enough to be beneficial but also sustainable-Fat utilised as the primary fuel source. Increases the number and size of mitochondria in muscles. Increases muscle capillary density
5) Sustainable aerobic (50-60%-<12 RPE) advised for sedentary/beginner individuals-Increases the utilisation of fats as a fuel. Increases the number and size of mitochondria in muscles. Increases muscle capillary density
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What are the 3 energy systems.(3)
```
1) Creatine phosphate, sometimes referred to as:
CP system
Phosphocreatine (PCr) system
Anaerobic alactic system
2) Lactic acid or lactate, sometimes referred to as:
Anaerobic glycolysis
3) Aerobic, sometimes referred to as:
Oxidative system.
```
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Creatine phosphate.(3)
1) 80-100g of ATP stored in body therefore CP allows for the ATP levels to not fall below a critical threshold as is quick to regenerate it, however not sustianable-better for high-impact short bouts of exercise.
2) Produced through ingestion of meat or production from liver and kidneys (which also remove creatine and creatinine which are formed during the metabolism of CP)
3) Interestingly, Type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibres contain higher concentrations of CP than Type I (slow-twitch) fibres. If somebody has a greater percent of Type II fibres then there is increased potential to replenish ATP at quicker rates, and this may support improved performance of high intensity exercise.
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Glycolysis/Lactic acid cycle.(3)
- If insufficient o2 required snd high energy demand the 6C glucose-->pyruvate but is then converted into lactic acid and H+ ions
- Interestingly the lactate is found to be the body's attempt at a buffer to the H+ ions (which cause the burning sensation during exercise)
- the Lactate is then via Cori cycle turned back into glucose to be used for respiration (if sufficient O2) or into create more lactic acid
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Aerobic respiration.(3)
- Following glucose splitting into 2 pyruvate in the cytoplasm it then moves into the mitochondria
- Here it is converted into acetyl coA and enters through the Krebs cycle where 36 ATP can be produced and by products are heat, water and CO2 (fat/proteins are required for this)
- the H+ ions produced during this are then passed through the oxidative phosphorylation chain where ATP is produced and O2 accepts the H+ forming water.
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ATP yield in the different energy systems.(3)
1) The creatine phosphate system contributes one CP molecule to restore one ADP molecule to yield one ATP molecule
2) Anaerobic respiration (without oxygen) produces two ATP molecules from each glucose molecule that is sent through glycolysis
3) Aerobic respiration (with oxygen) can produce x36 to x38 ATP molecules from each glucose molecule. Therefore, aerobic respiration is some 19 times more efficient than anaerobic respiration!
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What are the 3 key factors which determine which energy system you use?(3)
1) How quick eg above or below 75% MHR
2) How long < than or > 2 minutes (6-10 sec CP, 10-90 secs lactic, 60sec-3hr aerobic)
3) The availability of substrates-
CP can sustain about 3-10 seconds of all out activity, 30-60 secs to regain half and takes 5 minutes to fully regenerate
the average person could store enough glycogen to last 12-14 hours (2 hours of moderate intensity exercise)-comes from muscle and liver
fat stores from adipose and muscle
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Power v capacity.(1)
Power (CP) generates ATP quickest but cpapacity is aerobic as can generate the most.
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What are the main factors influencing the anaerobic threshold?(2)
An individual’s anaerobic threshold is dependent upon their genetics and their cardiorespiratory fitness level
These are relative therefore assigning arbitrary HR targets seems unwise in training-hence introduction of RPE.
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What is the anaerobic threshold of the RPE seen as?(1)
15, with 13-15 seen as good for a workout to challenge but not over-exert an individuals
111
Cons fo MHR% method for cardio prescription.(1)
Had SE of 7-10bpm so not fully accurate, therefore for scientific research said to use HRR of VO2R
Can also use RPE.
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Recommendations by ASCM on cardio.(6)
1) Moderate-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise: 40–60% HRR, five days per week
2) Vigorous-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise: >60% HRR, three days per week
3) Combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity exercise: three to five days per week
4) Members with low start fitness: intensity threshold of at least 45% HRR to increase VO2max
5) Members with moderate start fitness: intensity threshold of at least 66–79% HRR to increase VO2max
6) Members with very high start fitness: intensity threshold of at least 100% HRR to increase VO2max.
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Things that aid venous return.(5)
1) Gravity
2) Valves
3) Diaphragm creates suction on veins below the heart
4) Peristalsis
5) Skeletal muscle contraction-hence pulse lower otherwise get blood pooling.
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Factors likely to exacerbate or cause DOMs.(5)
```
Novel exercise
Intensity (and respective individual fitness)
Duration
Genetics (NOT evidence for sex)
Eccentric portion emphasised
```
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Difference in time for maintenance and development stretches.(2)
Up to 30sec for maintenance
| 30-90 secs developmental targeted by greater myofascia extensibility
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2 key phases of growth.(2)
Foetal growth (hyperplasia-cell multiplication) and pubertal growth (hypertrophy)
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Rates of growth.(3)
3-8 years children grow rapidly and develop fine motor skills
9-11 this slows and body becomes more proportionate, greater motor skill refining (up to this point only growth hormone influence)
12-18 puberty sees huge growth spurts (usually 2 years fast followed by 3 years slow growth) (sex hormones begin to contribute via the pituitary gland) boys usually enter later with fastest spurt 14-15 (girls 12-13) and stop around 20-girls 18.
118
Bone growth.(4)
Average age for completion of ossification is 25 but this can vary significantly
Primary ossifications sites pre birth are usually found in the developing shaft whilsts secondary sites are at the ends of the bone and are post birth
osteoblasts lay down a collar around the cartilage of calcium and phosphate and the osteoclasts remove old bone cells that line the medullary cavity of the diaphysis-this over time leads to an increase of the medullary cavity and diaphysis of the bone.
119
During puberty what does growth hormone do to stimulate bone growth?(3)
- Osteoblast production (and closure of epiphyseal plate once complete)
- Production of proteins necessary for growth
- Signal breakdown of fat to be used as fuel.
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Things to note for high-intensity in young exercisers.(2)
-Overall, this means that children are unable to generate the low blood pH or high blood lactate values that are linked with anaerobic work. This means that the natural fatigue mechanisms from intense work that adults possess do not exist with children. This, along with the fact that they tend to overheat more than adults, are the major risk factors that Fitness Instructors need to be aware of when training young athletes at high intensities.
For instance, on sprint interval training, while children may appear to be able to keep going in that they have not developed high acidosis, their muscles will still be fatigued.
-Also note that tendons and ligaments fuse to bones from 12 to 20 so take care with excessive volume-loads of running and jumping sports
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Activity recommendations for under 5s(2)
Even infants and toddlers should spend 30-180 mins per day performing a variety of physical activities such as reaching and grasping, pushing and pulling themselves independently, or rolling over. Active indoor and outdoor play at any intensity is encouraged
• Pre-schoolers should spend at least 180 minutes per day in a variety of physical activities spread throughout the day, including active and outdoor play. More is better; the 180 minutes should include at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity.
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Activity recommendations for 5-18yr olds.(4)
-Children and young people should engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity for an average of at least 60 minutes per day across the week. This can include all forms of activity such as physical education, active travel, after-school activities, play and sports
• A variety of types and intensities of physical activity across the week should be encouraged to develop movement skills, muscular fitness, and bone strength
• Evidence shows that children rarely accumulate physical activity in long bouts, and that the total time in moderate-vigorous activity intensities, rather than time spent in specific bouts, was important for health outcomes
• The current evidence suggests that developing a broader, more diverse range of movement skills, providing variety in the types of physical activity that children and young people engage in, is likely to be beneficial (e.g. play, sport, swimming, climbing, physical education in school, dance and structured workouts).
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Aging on the body.(5)
- In the 30s strength peaks and stays relatively constant until age 50. By the 70s, men and women can expect a 30% decline in available muscle strength and a 40% reduction in the muscle cross-sectional area.
- Bone mass decreases from 40yrs with greater in women due to cessation of oestrogen
- reduced ROM due to thickening of the ligaments and loss of elasticity
- Loss of elasticity in blood vessels and arteriosclerosis impact aerobic performance (less able to vasodilate)
- postural control declines and gradually gain weight from 35.
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Osteopenia vs Osteoporosis.(2)
Osteopenia-'bone poverty' reduction in bone density mainly in spongy bone initially but then more compact bone over time
Osteoporosis- is present when the bone density is close to 50% below the average bone mass of a young adult woman. Thus, osteoporotic bone is even less able to absorb energy before it fails than normally aged bone and there is less calcium stored in the skeleton overall.
125
Osteoporosis.(2)
It is now thought that peak bone mass occurs at about 16 to 20 years of age in women, and so health, lifestyle, exercise and nutrition is even more important at this time to ensure bone reaches its full ossification potential, because as ageing occurs, bone mineral density will only begin to fall.
Osteoporosis is commonly associated with women, but the prevalence among men is now the same as it was in women about 25 years ago. This trend has been attributed to lifestyle changes, which include inadequate intake of calcium and less-than-optimal levels of physical activity.
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What is sarcopenia? What is it associated with?(7)
The age-related loss of muscle mass, strength and function (mainly type II) and an increase in both fibrous, less flexible tissue and adipose tissue (deposited within the skeletal muscle).
Associated with:
-Loss of function, disability and frailty
-Acute and chronic disease states (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis)
-Increased insulin resistance (linked to type 2 diabetes)
-Fatigue
-Falls
-Mortality / death.
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Causes of sarcopenia.(5)
Environmental: reduced activity levels, reduced protein intake, excessive energy intake resulting in obesity
Hormone: age-related declines in insulin-like growth factor-1, testosterone and oestrogen
Inflammation: higher levels of general inflammation resulting from poor lifestyle habits
Muscle repair rates: the ageing-related loss of ability to replenish and replace skeletal muscle
Mitochondria: less effective functioning of mitochondria within skeletal muscle
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What are some indicators that an older patient may be more likely to fall.(4)
- <5 chair sit and stands in 30
- scoring greater than 3 on the prisma questionnaire
- <10 secs standing on one leg
- <5secs to walk 4m
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Pregnancy physical activity recommendations.(1)
At least 150 minutes moderate-intensity eg brisk walking, program should aim for 20-30 mins a day though.
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Benefits of exercise during and after pregnancy. (5)
* Decreased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus and better maintenance of blood glucose levels
* Prevention of pre-eclampsia (high blood pressure) later in pregnancy
* Decreased risk of caesarean and operative vaginal delivery
* Decreased postpartum recovery time
* Improved confidence and sense of self.
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What are absolute contraindications for aerobic exercise during pregnancy.(9)
- Hemodynamically significant heart disease
- Restrictive lung disease
- Incompetent cervix / cerclage
- Multiple gestation at risk of premature labour
- Persistent second- or third-trimester bleeding
- Placenta previa after 26 weeks of gestation
- Premature labour during the current pregnancy
- Ruptured membranes
- Preeclampsia or pregnancy-induced hypertension.
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Activities to avoid during pregnancy.(5)
Contact sports (e.g. ice hockey, boxing, soccer, and basketball)
Activities with a high risk of falling (e.g. downhill snow skiing, water skiing. surfing. off-road cycling. gymnastics, and horseback riding)
Scuba diving
Sky diving
Hot yoga or hot Pilates.
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Warning signs to discontinue exercise when pregnancy.(9)
```
Vaginal bleeding
Regular painful contractions
Amniotic fluid leakage
Dyspnea (shortness of breath) before exertion
Dizziness
Headache
Chest pain
Muscle weakness affecting balance
Calf pain or swelling.
```
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Anaerobic training guidelines when pregnant. (6)
- Practise controlled breathing while lifting; refrain from holding your breath (Valsalva Manoeuvre)
- Avoid ballistic movements and heavy resistance training
- Substitute free weights, tubing and calisthenics once exercise machines become too difficult to use because of increased size and balance problems
- Perform higher repetitions and lower weight programmes (one to two sets of 12 to 15 repetitions)
- Use of some machines is recommended in early pregnancy and some in later pregnancy
- Resistance training of the adductors, abductors, hamstrings, gluteals and quadriceps prepares these muscles for their role in labour and delivery.
135
Cardiovascular changes during pregnancy.(9)
- cardiac hypertrophy
- cardiac output increases from 30%-50% in week 32 and then back to 20% above normal in week 40
- between weeks 14-20 HR icnreases by 10-15bpm
- cardiac rhythm disturbed (shouldn't be alarmed)-REP scale better for assessing exertion
- systolic bp relatively same but diastolic drops but regains before end of pregnancy
- blood volume (10-12weeks begins) can increase up to 40% causes greater vasodilation to help with bp ("pregnancy glow")
- RBC inc 20-30% but bc blood vol increases in second trimester this dilutes Hb and means they are at risk of anaemia
- talk test to ensure pregnant women isn't over exerting herself
- contention over supine position due to issues with venous return (same with stationary yoga positions), though small bouts will be okay
136
Respiratory changes during pregnancy.(4)
- ventilation increases by up to 50% due to tidal volume increase due to increased sensitivity to CO2 (can result is dyspnea)
- increased BMR may mean women in first trimester experience heat fatigue, ensure they arent in too hot and environment, wear loose clothing and stay hydrated
- swimming good as dissipates heat energy during exercise and can help relieve joint stress
- as foetus grows up makes harder for diaphragm to contract and move down (again resulting in dyspnea)
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Neurological changes and recommendations during pregnancy.(6)
- Minimise training and exercise selection that focuses upon agility and quick changes of direction
- Strengthen the gluteal musculature to provide balance across the hip musculature
- Be aware of potential weakness in grip strength, and select exercises with fixed handles, e.g. seated machine row vs. dumbbell one-arm row
- Encourage exercise modalities that promote relaxation and empowerment, i.e. a sense that exercise is positive and helps take steps to an easier birth, and faster recovery
- Promote other healthy lifestyle behaviours: balanced nutrition from natural / wholefoods; adequate intake of micronutrients from fruit and vegetables; adequate intake of sodium, calcium and potassium; and relaxation activities
- Check on proximity of eating to exercise and ask questions relating to symptoms of this nature. Avoid exercises that create a more inverted body position, e.g. downward-facing-dog poses
138
Endocrine changes during pregnancy advice.(5)
- These hormones decrease the mother’s ability to use insulin, and thus the mother becomes mildly insulin resistant. This is a protective mechanism that ensures the mother’s body does not take up all the nutritional resources from food, but saves these and makes them available for the foetus. Thus, the mother’s pancreas must increase its production of insulin as a compensation, which it can adequately achieve
- High-intensity or prolonged exercise (more than 45 minutes) can lead to hypoglycaemia; therefore, adequate caloric intake before exercise, or limiting the exercise session duration, is essential to minimise this risk
- Oestrogen also causes relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and joints
- Considerations are that exercise should not take place within two hours of eating and a small snack should be eaten immediately after exercise
- Abdominal crunches performed in a supine position could cause a diastasis, or tear in the rectus abdominis muscle, and therefore are better replaced by ‘less aggressive’ core exercises. Furthermore, it is wise to limit prone positions (e.g. press-ups) where the weight of the baby can lean forward and further stress a weak abdominal wall and line alba
139
Which bones make up the pelvic girdle? (3) Which muscles does it protect?(3)
Ilium, ischium and pubic bones.
| Protects the abdominal organs such as the bladder, rectum and, in women, the uterus.
140
Advise for helping with weak pelvic floor muscles from pregnancy.(2)
- Exhale on exertion to help intra-abdominal pressure, and set intensity below which urinary leaking occurs
- unilateral and contralateral movements as well as ballistic and developmental stretching can be detrimental due to pulling to musculature already more loose due to relaxin-can remain elevated post birth for several weeks-avoid loading into outer ranges and avoid fast movements into these outer ranges.
141
How long after birth should a woman be able to return to exercise?(2)
Vaginal/normal/uncomplicated birth-be able to begin light physical activity immediately can include pelvic flooor exercises, and 6 week review for structured exercise-light exercises initially-PO
Caesarean-begin structured activity from 12 weeks and following guidance from GP/Health provider
142
Give 3 examples of organisations which make sport more accessible for disabled people.(3)
- Mencap sport
- English federation of disability sport
- Parasport
143
Specialised equipment a fitness facility may have to aid disabled members.(4)
- Harness
- Bannisters
- Large labels/braille
- Wheelchair access
144
List Acts and years for protection of vulnerable adults/children.(6)
- The Children Act (1989)-parental responsibility
- The Police Act (1995)-surveillance for protection of the community
- The Protection of Children Act (PoCA) (1999)-list of people not allowed to work with children and young adults
- The Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006)-requirement for DBS etc
- Every Child Matters Act (2004)-aims to improve outcomes for all children
- The Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) (1995)-updated in 2005 to include education
145
How many cals for each of the macro groups? How many calories does the average cardio or heavy lifting workout burn? Recommended calorie intake of average man/woman? (7)
```
Protein-4
Fat-9
Carb-4
Cardio 5-6 cals/minute
Heavy lifting 4-10 cals/minute
2500 man/ 2000 woman.
```
146
Difference between soluble and insoluble fibre. Daily recommendation from eat well guide?(3)
Soluble fibre is a polysaccharide with is soluble in water and can lead to you feeling fuller for longer due to fermentation in the colon eg potatoes, strawberries, beans
Insoluble fibre is not soluble in water but absorb in and therefore eases passing of stools eg nuts, beans, potatoes
30g/day
147
What is the recommendation DRV for carbs?(1)
50% however is not essential to life-note wholegrain unrefined carbs are good source of fibre and have had little modifications compared to refined carbs eg white bread.
148
What are the 9 essential amino acids?(9)
```
Histidine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Lycine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine.
```
149
What are the 4 conditional essential amino acids.(4)
Arginine
Tyrosine
Glutamine
Cysteine.
150
What are the 7 non-essential amino acids?(7)
```
Alanine
Aspartagine
Aspartic acid
Proline
Serine
Glycine.
```
151
What are examples of complete and incomplete protein sources.(2)
Complete: meat, fish, soya, dairy
Incomplete: Cereals, legumes, vegetables, nuts.
152
Functions of fat in the body. What is the DRV recommendation?(8)
- 35% recommended with 11% saturated fat
- Protection
- Thermoregulation
- Insulation of nerve cells (myelin sheath)
- Uptake and storage of certain vitamins (insufficient fat intake can result in deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K)
- Energy production
- Growth, development and repair
- Can regulate reproductive cycle and in men very lean can effect testosterone circulation, interruptions of oestrogen can increase the risk of osteoporosis/ostopenia.
153
Water soluble vitamins.(1)
Vitamins B, C-uptake of fat-soluble vitamins better when consumed with high-fat food.
154
Difference between macro and micro minerals and examples of each.(3)
Macro minerals required in 100mg/day or greater or micro <15g/day
Macro:Calcium, Phosphorus, potassium, Magnesium, NaCl
Micro:Iron, zinc, selenium, iodine, copper, manganese, fluoride.
155
Importance of Magnesium.(2)
Bound to ATP so involved in all ATP reactions
| Activates enzyme for DNA and RNA synthesis.
156
Dehydration and water recommendations.(2)
- 2% water level drop can result in serious effects for mental and physical function eg kidney function, fatigue, BP dropping making circulation harder, constipation- 10% could be fatal
- 2.7l/day women 3.7l/day men recommendation-6-8cups per day Eat well guide
157
Components involved in energy balance.(4)
Thermic effect of food (TEF) ~10%, Basal metabolic rate (BMR)~60-75%, exercise, activity/NEAT~15-30%
158
What is diverticular disease?(2)
-According to NHS U.K., with diverticular disease, small bulges or pockets (diverticula) develop in the lining of the intestine. Diverticulitis is when these pockets become inflamed or infected. Symptoms of the disease include lower abdominal pain and feeling bloated.
-Eating >25g means 40% reduction in chance of being admitted to hospital for this disease
fibre helps maintain pH making it good for bacterial growth (good bacteria)
