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Biochem Final > Leys > Flashcards

Leys Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the major intracellular compartments of the cell?

A

Cytosol, mitochondria, rough ER, smooth ER, golgi, nucleus, peroxisomes, lysosomes, endosomes

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2
Q

Proteins that have crossed a membrane are no longer ________ the cell. They must _____ the membrane to get back inside the cell.

A

topologically inside

recross

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3
Q

Vesicles move from compartment to compartment within a cell by ?

A

budding off and membrane fusion

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4
Q

Many proteins have signal sequences at their _____ that direct the proteins to cross the membrane. Fewer proteins have ____ signal sequences.

A

amino terminus

internal

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5
Q

What do signal sequences on proteins signal for?

A

crossing the membrane

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6
Q

The nucleus is surrounded by a double lipid membrane bilayer, however _____ allow molecules, including proteins to pass from the cytosol into the nucleus and back.

A

nuclear pores

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7
Q

What pass through nuclear pores by an active process?

A

Larger proteins

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8
Q

What binds to nuclear transport signals found on some nuclear bound proteins and facilitate transport into the nucleus?

A

Nuclear import receptors

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9
Q

It generally requires multiple signals to transport proteins from the cytosol into?

A

lumen of the mitochondria.

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10
Q

There are multiple protein ____ in the mitochondrial membrane. Each ____ interacts with a specific set of proteins.

A

translocators

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11
Q

Transport of protein into the mitochondria requires ____.

A

energy

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12
Q

Proteins enter ____ using a mechanism similar to mitochondrial entry.

A

Peroxisomes

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13
Q

Proteins travel from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), through the _____ to many sites.

A

golgi

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14
Q

A signal recognition protein (SRP) binds to the signal sequence during ____ and directs the _____ to the ER membrane.

A

translation

nascent peptide

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15
Q

A signal recognition protein (SRP) binds to the _____ during translation and directs the nascent peptide to the ____.

A

signal sequence

ER membrane

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16
Q

Proteins bound for the mitochondria are translated in the _____ and than transported through the mitochondrial membrane. A process that requires____.

A

cytosol

ATP

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17
Q

Proteins that are headed into or through the ER are transported through the ER membrane during ____. This process requires ______.

A

translation

No energy

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18
Q

What kind of modification of proteins in the ER helps direct them to their ultimate location?

A

Carbohydrate modification

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19
Q

Carbohydrate modification of proteins in the ___ helps direct them to ??

A

ER

their ultimate location.

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20
Q

What is the “default pathway” if there are no other signals directing the protein to other locations?

A

To send the protein to the cell surface.

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21
Q

What is the regulated secretory pathway?

A

cells store proteins in secretory vesicles until they are signaled to release them from the cell by fusion of the vesicles with the cellular membrane.

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22
Q

Several factors contribute to the state of nutrition including:

A 
appetite, 
energy expenditure, 
genotype, 
digestion, 
metabolism, 
availability of food, 
customs and presence of disease.
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23
Q

Three important regulators of food intake

A

Leptin, Ghrelin and Insulin

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24
Q

Leptin circulates, in the body, at levels proportional to ?

A

body fat.

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25
Leptin signals the brain that the body has _____
had enough to eat, or satiety.
26
Adipose tissue produces______ that regulate ______ to meet the body’s needs.
adipokines | metabolic processes
27
AMP and AMP/ATP regulate AMP-activated kinase (AMPK), which does what?
senses cellular energy levels.
28
AMPK regulates?
rate-limiting enzymes in energy-producing and using pathways.
29
High levels of AMPK activity inhibit ________ and stimulate ______
energy-utilizing pathways | energy generating pathways.
30
How does increased ghrelin affect hunger?
increased hunger
31
Ghrelin favors accumulation of lipids in
the visceral fatty tissue.
32
Estimated average requirements (EAR) for calories changes with _____. Estimated daily protein requirements also vary with ______.
age and sex
33
The ideal amount of calorie intake in a day is equal to
the calorie utilization for that day.
34
RDA vs EAR
Recommended daily allowance (RDA) for a nutrient is a value that is adequate for the great majority of individuals. The estimated average requirement (EAR) reflects amount that is adequate for half of the population.
35
Different nutrients have different energy content. | _____ has the highest energy content per weight. _____ also has a high-energy content.
Fat | Alcohol
36
Increases in obesity are correlated with an increase in the use of _______
high fructose corn syrup.
37
How is HFCS made?
By breaking down cornstarch into glucose using amylase followed by conversion to fructose with glucose isomerase.
38
There are several potential health issues associated with comsumption of high fructose corn syrup including:
``` mercury exposure, hypertension, elevated cholesterol long-term liver damage increased risk of diabetes and weight gain and obesity. ```
39
Protein-calorie malnutrition causes a number of health problems including:
``` decreased protein synthesis and glucose transport fatty liver liver necrosis and fibrosis depression hypothermia compromised immune function and would healing decreased cardiac and renal function loss of muscle. ```
40
Obesity is associated with an increased risk for several conditions including:
``` type 2 diabetes hypertension and stroke dyslipidemia gall stones respiratory disorders musculoskeletal disorders several cancers including breast, endometrial, ovarian, gall bladder and colon. ```
41
Know the difference in the structures of cis and trans fatty acids.
Trans form have H groups on opposite sides | Cis form is more kinked
42
____ fatty acids are not essential and provide no benefit to human health.
Trans
43
____ fats increase levels of LDL cholesterol (bad cholesterol).
Saturated
44
_____ fats increase levels of LDL and also lower levels of HDL (good cholesterol); thus increasing the risk of ____
Trans | coronary heart disease.
45
The differences between fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins.
Water soluble: * Act as coenzymes * No storage (except B12) * Not toxic in excess
46
Measurements of vitamin levels in the blood relate more to recent intake or to overall body status?
Recent intake
47
Water-soluble vitamins act as ____ in many metabolic pathways
coenzymes
48
The body has no storage capacity for water-soluble vitamins– except _____?
B12
49
Evidence is emerging that suggests an excess of some ____ vitamins can be toxic
B
50
Most vitamins are modified before they become _____
active
51
B Vitamins are co-enzymes in different types of reactions: ``` B1 – B2/B3 – B6 – Biotin – Folic acid/B12 – ```
``` B1 – carboxylations B2/B3 – oxidoreductases B6 – transaminases Biotin – carboxylases Folic acid/B12 – single carbon transfers ```
52
Lack of riboflavin causes
angular stomatitis
53
Eating raw egg whites can cause
Biotin deficiency
54
Folic acid is needed, indirectly, for
DNA synthesis`
55
Inhibitors of _____ are used as antibiotics (trimethoprim) and cancer therapy (methotrexate).
folate reduction
56
When is there an increased demand for folic acid?
Pregnancy
57
_____ deficiency is one of the most common vitamin deficiencies
Folic acid
58
The functions of _____ and_____ are interrelated
folic acid and B12
59
B12 is concentrated in
the liver
60
Vitamin C deficiency causes _____ resulting in ____
scurvy | defective collagen synthesis
61
Lack of vitamin C also impairs
immune function
62
Fat-soluble vitamins are not as ______ as water-soluble vitamins, but can be stored in tissues
readily absorbed
63
Some fat-soluble vitamins (_________) can be toxic in excess
A and D
64
_______ is teratogenic and should be avoided during pregnancy
Vitamin A
65
Retinoic acid is a signaling molecule that interacts with __________
ligand-activated transcription factors
66
Deficiency of vitamin A causes
night blindness
67
Vitamin D regulates __________ homeostasis
calcium and phosphorous
68
The majority of vitamin D is produced by
UV exposure of skin
69
People in northern climates have a difficult time getting sufficient
vitamin D in the winter
70
Deficiency of vitamin D causes
demineralization of bones with increased susceptibility to fractures
71
Vitamin D deficiency is linked to early childhood
caries
72
Vitamin K is necessary for
blood coagulation
73
Know the structure of lactic acid
3 C w/ Polar OH group and carboxylic acid | *just google it*
74
There are close to 3 billion bases of the human genome, but only 20,000-25,000 _______.
protein-coding genes
75
Alternative splicing and alternative gene promoters result in
4-6 different mRNAs from a single gene
76
Number of _____ may be as large as 100,000
protein-coding mRNAs (transcriptome)
77
The original Human Genome Project used 'clone-by-clone' and ‘shotgun’ approaches for _____.
sequencing
78
There are ____ gaps remaining in the Human genome (compared to 150,000 in draft)
250
79
Since the completion of the human genome, ______ has increased dramatically while costs have declined.
sequencing capacity
80
What database has >10,000 entries that associate human genes with inherited diseases?
Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM)
81
What are SNPs or single nucleotide polymorphisms?
mapped base positions in the genome where the nucleotide varies among people.
82
Companies (e.g. 23 and me) are offering full genome scans to individuals for less than $100. This analysis is based on
SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism analysis).
83
What is Chromosomal Microarray Analysis (CMA) and what can it be used for.
Labeled DNA hybridized to array several million oligonucleotide on chips. This can be used for prenatal screening for early detection of chromosomal defects.
84
Transcriptome =??`
complement of mRNAs, containing protein-coding sequences but there are also other RNAs produced that play structural or regulatory functions (miRNA, siRNA, etc.)
85
How can the transcriptome be studied?
Using Microarrays, a collection of complementary (cDNA) made from mRNA or synthetic oligonucleotides arranged on a solid phase slide in a defined order
86
Generally, several oligonucleotide probes per ____ are used.
gene
87
Two samples can be compared by labeling each with a different fluorescent dye and ________ . (e.g. Two-color arrays can compare normal and cancer cells).
hybridizing them to the same array
88
With advances in sequencing technology, RNAseq or sequencing the entire compliment of RNA in a sample is rapidly replacing _________.
microarray approaches
89
Data analysis is bioinformatics intensive and requires ______.
stringent statistical analysis
90
Proteomics is the study of
the protein complement of a cell.
91
Comparative proteomics is the analysis of protein profiles from two or more samples (e.g., diseased vs. healthy cells) to identify ______ that could be responsible for ______
quantitative differences | observed phenotypes.
92
Proteomics can identify _________ that cannot be detected by transcriptome analysis.
posttranslational modifications
93
Proteins can be separated by ___________ or by ___________.
``` two dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) Liquid chromatography (FPLC, HPLC) ```
94
Proteins are identified by
Mass spectrometry.
95
Metabolomics is the identification and quantification of
steady-state levels of intracellular metabolites (sugars, amino acids, lipids, nucleotides etc.)
96
Because the technology to identify every metabolite in a biological sample is not available, _______ is often carried out, where a few specific metabolites are measured.
targeted metabolomics
97
Drug metabolism can take place anywhere in the body (Plasma, kidney, lung, gut wall) but ______ is prime site.
liver
98
There are three potential outcomes of drug metabolism:
1) Increase in drug hydrophilicity and ability to be excreted (hepatic) 2) Metabolic products are less pharmacologically active than the substrate drug 3) Inactive prodrugs converted to their active forms (hepatic)
99
There are several mechanisms of Drug Resistance including:
1) decreased permeability 2) alteration of the target site for the drug 3) enzymatic inactivation of the drug 4) active transport of the drug out of the cell 5) amplification of the gene coding for the target of the drug.
100
An increase in _______ can decrease effectiveness of drugs that target DNA.
DNA repair activity
101
Multidrug resistant results from _______ that can pump many different drugs out of the cell.
an increase in the amount of transporter proteins

Biochem Final (2 decks)

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