Liberalism Flashcards
(32 cards)
Define Liberalism
The central theme of liberal ideology is a commitment to the individual and the desire to construct a society in which people can satisfy their interests and achieve fulfilment. They reject limitations imposed by class or tradition. Liberals believe that human beings are, first and foremost, individuals, endowed with reason. This implies that each individual should enjoy the maximum possible freedom consistent with a like freedom for all.
Define Individualism
Individualism is the belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any social group or collective body. This suggests that the individual is central to any political theory or social explanation – all statements about society should be made in terms of the individuals who compose them
Outline Individualism as a Core idea and principle
Classical liberals and the New Right subscribe to egotistical individualism, which places emphasis on self-interestedness and self-reliance. Modern liberals, in contrast, have advanced a developmental form of individualism that prioritises human flourishing over the quest for interest satisfaction.
The first is that each human being is a separate and unique entity, defined by inner qualities and attributes that are specific to themselves. To be an individual, in this sense, is to be different. This implication of individualism is captured in the idea of individuality. The second implication is that, as individuals, each of us shares the same status. Our identity is not defined by social categories such as gender, social class, ethnicity, religion, nationality and so on, but by the fact that we are individuals. To be an individual, in this sense, is to be the same. Liberals, in this light, are often portrayed as being ‘difference-blind’
Outline Tolerance in Individualism core idea
Another idea linked to the importance of the individual is tolerance: a willingness to respect values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees. This is one of the natural rights that liberals believe everyone should have, which should not be taken away against the will of the individual. Locke’s work appeared amidst a fear that Catholicism might be taking over England, and responds to the problem of religion and government by proposing religious toleration as the answer. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, who saw uniformity of religion as the key to a well-functioning civil society, Locke argued that more religious groups actually prevent civil unrest. In his opinion, civil unrest results from confrontations caused by any magistrate’s attempt to prevent different religions from being practised, rather than tolerating their proliferation. Rawls argues that an intolerant sect should be tolerated in a tolerant society unless the sect directly threatens the security of other members of the society. He links this principle to the stability of a tolerant society, in which members of an intolerant sect in a tolerant society will, over time, acquire the tolerance of the wider society.
Outline Freedom and Liberty as a Core idea and principle
Freedom is the most important of all liberal values.Early liberals objected to the way in which authoritarian governments claimed a right to take decisions on behalf of people and attempted to regulate their behaviour. However, they and their successors did recognise that freedom can never be absolute but must be exercised under the law, in order to protect people from interfering with each other’s rights. This is why the early liberal thinker John Locke (1632-1704) argued that ‘the end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom… where there is no law, there is no freedom.’
John Stuart Mill (1806-73) began as a follower of Bentham, but came to see the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain as too simplistic. He put forward what became known as the idea of negative freedom: individuals should only be subject to external restraint when their actions potentially affect others, not when their actions affect only themselves
Outline (The state: a ‘necessary evil’) as a Core idea
Liberal thinking about politics focuses primarily on the nature and role of the state and the organisation of government power. Such thinking is underpinned by the core assumption that the liberty of one person is always in danger of becoming a licence to abuse another. Each person can be said to be both a threat to, and under threat from, every other member of society. Our liberty therefore requires that the other members of society are restrained from encroaching on our freedom and, in turn, their liberty requires that they are safeguarded from us. This protection is provided by a sovereign state, capable of restraining all individuals and groups within society.
Liberals accept that the state is needed to avert disorder and to protect the vulnerable from exploitation. However, they mistrust power because they believe that human beings are essentially self-seeking, so may use any position of power to pursue their own interests, probably at the expense of others. Liberals oppose the concentration of political power, fearing that it gives people a greater incentive to benefit themselves and to use other people for their own ends.
They support the idea of constitutionalism — a government in which power is distributed and limited by a system of laws — in order to prevent a concentration of power. Typical features of a liberal constitution include the separation of powers. Liberals also favour a bill of rights, which provides a clear statement of citizens’ rights and defines the relationship between citizens and the state. In the United States, the first ten amendments to the Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights. An alternative is federalism — a system of government like that in the USA or Germany, where a number of states form a union under a central government, while each state retains responsibility for its own internal affairs.
Outline Rationalism as a Core idea
It holds that individuals should be free to exercise their judgement about their own interests, without needing to be guided by external authorities, such as the state or church leaders. People will not always make correct decisions, but it is better for them to take responsibility for themselves than to take instruction from above.
Rationalism in action - Liberals accept that competition between individuals, groups and nations regrettably will produce conflicts, but they favour the use of reasoned debate and discussion to resolve disputes. Late 19th-century liberals were in the forefront of moves to develop methods of industrial arbitration. This meant that a neutral third party would mediate between employers and trades unions, in an effort to avert costly legal action or strikes. Similarly, in international relations, liberals view war as a last resort, which should be avoided if at all possible.
Outline Equity/Social justice as a Core idea
Liberals place emphasis on equality of opportunity, the idea that each person should have the same chance to rise or fall in society. Liberals accept differing outcomes because people have different abilities and potential. They should be free to reach that potential.
Traditionally liberalism is based on a belief in foundational equality — people are born equal. This implies a belief in formal equality: individuals should enjoy the same legal and political rights in society, ensured by equality before the law and equal voting rights in free and fair elections.
Socialists criticised liberalism on the grounds that it does not tackle inequality because it is closely linked to the capitalist idea of competition. Instead, socialists aim to achieve equality of outcome by using the power of the state to redistribute wealth. However, classical liberals believe that individuals with different talents should be rewarded differently. The resulting social inequality is beneficial for society because it gives people an incentive to work hard and make the most of their abilities.
Outline Liberal democracy as a Core Idea
The idea that government should be based on the consent of the people is central to liberalism and long predates modern notions of democracy. Liberals argue that, without this foundation, the government lacks legitimacy.
Liberals support democracy on the grounds that it enables citizens to hold the government to account. It also extends popular participation and performs an educational function in society — the concept of developmental democracy, promoting the personal development of individuals. Democracy also gives a political voice to different groups and interests. In this way it promotes consensus and underpins political stability, giving equilibrium or balance to the political system.
On the other hand, liberals have feared excessive democracy on the grounds that it may lead to the ‘tyranny of the majority’, suppressing minority rights or individual freedom, or it may create a culture of dull conformism. Mill proposed to allocate more votes to the educated (plural voting) as a way of curbing the influence of the uneducated masses. Modern liberals would not support this idea because it gives undue weight to the views of an elite. They have been generally supportive of democracy, as long as it is limited by a constitutional framework, and individual and group rights are protected.
Define Liberal Democracy
Since the 19th century most liberals have supported the concept of liberal democracy. This involves:
free elections to give expression to the will of the people
limitations on the power of the state, which should act as a neutral arbiter between different interests in society
respect for civil liberties and toleration of different viewpoints
Outline The arguments of social justice/equity in terms of key thinkers
The early feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) argued that women were no less rational beings than men, so were entitled to the same rights to pursue a career and to own their own property when married — something the law prohibited at the time. Modern liberals support full civil rights for women and minority groups. For example, US President Barack Obama supported the right of transgender pupils to use bathrooms of their choice at school. There are different views within liberalism on equality. Most modern liberals favour some degree of state intervention to narrow social inequalities. They believe that true equality is not possible without social justice. However, they do not believe that total equality of outcome is either possible or desirable. John Rawls (1921-2002), author of A Theory of Justice (1971), is known for attempting to reconcile the concepts of liberal individualism with the prevention of excessive inequality.
Briefly define Classical Liberalism
This is the earliest liberal tradition, emerging during the transition from feudalism to capitalism, and reaching a high point in the 19th century. It was a reaction to religious conformity and the ascribed statuses of feudal society, and began in the UK, where the industrial revolution was most advanced. Some classical liberal ideas have increased in popularity in recent decades, namely neoliberalism, which is a return to classical liberal economics.
Outline the views of Liberalism
View of freedom: Classical liberals support the concept of negative freedom, meaning that individuals should, as far as possible, be free from government interference. Therefore, there should be an absence of constraints on the individual, meaning the state should be minimal. This will encourage individuals to take responsibility for their lives and be self-reliant. The alternative is that people may become reliant on the state, leading to a dependency culture. Egotistical individualism is also supported by classical liberals, where freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance.
View of the state: Classical (and modern) liberals support the principle of self-government- that groups of people should have the power to rule themselves- to help protect civil liberties. They also see the state as something which has been created by the people as a way of protecting rights and interests (mechanistic theory). Classical liberals strongly support a minimal state, whereby the state just lays down the conditions for an orderly existence but, as far as possible, does not get involved in people’s lives. The state’s role is to maintain order, enforce contracts between individuals, and protect its citizens from outside attack. Anything more than this runs the risk of infringing people’s liberties. Some liberals support the idea of social Darwinism, which is the ‘survival of the fittest’ principle applied to society. The idea is that people will rise and fall in society depending on their own merits and efforts, so it is not the responsibility of the state to help those at the bottom of society, for example through welfare. Classical liberals support a laissez-faire capitalist economy, which allows for personal freedom and provides benefits for all of society.
Define modern liberalism as a strand
This arose as a reaction to the effects of capitalism, which had created large inequalities of wealth and social circumstances. Modern liberals recognised that, in conditions of extreme poverty, people were prevented from rising in society, no matter how talented they were or how hard they worked.
Outline modern liberalism as a strand
View of freedom: TH Green (1836-82) believed that the unrestrained pursuit of profit had caused new forms of poverty and injustice, and that economic liberty had blighted the life chances of many. Green suggested that individuals possess social responsibilities, not just individual ones, and are linked to others. He and other modern liberals were critical of the classical liberal notion of negative liberty- giving freedom of choice would lead to unjust actions and exploitation (‘freedom to starve’). Modern liberals saw freedom as the ability of the individual to develop and realise their potential, and achieve fulfilment (positive freedom). This recognises that liberty may be threatened by social disadvantage and inequality, so it is not enough for individuals to be ‘left alone’ to ensure liberty.
View of the state: Modern liberals differ from classical liberals in that they support an enabling state. This is where the state helps to protect individual freedoms by exercising a wider range of social and economic responsibilities than a minimal state. This involves reducing inequality, to help provide equality of opportunity for all, even the least well-off. Modern liberalism therefore supports welfarism. This was seen through the actions of the Liberal government of the early 1900s, which introduced old-age pensions and National Insurance. The Beveridge Report of 1942 reported that much of the British population was held back by the ‘five giants’: want (poverty), ignorance (lack of education), disease (ill health), squalor (poor living conditions) and idleness (unemployment). Modern liberals suggest that the government had a responsibility to remove these, as they were barriers to freedom.
How far does modern liberalism depart from classical liberalism?
Although there are differing ideas over the conception of freedom and the role of the state, there remains some common ground between the different types of liberalism. Both types want to promote freedom, although the way the state should do this is different. Also, despite the support for welfarism, modern liberalism does not place society before the individual. The state cannot force people to be good, but should help provide conditions in which they can make responsible moral decisions- the individual therefore retains autonomy. It can be seen therefore that the underlying commitment to the needs of the individual and individual freedom remains- the central thrust of modern liberalism is to help individuals help themselves. In addition, both types are suspicious of an over-powerful state, supporting limited government as the best way to protect the liberties of individuals.
Outline tensions of strands in Human Nature
■ Human nature: all liberals believe that individuals are generally rational, intelligent, keen to pursue their own individual happiness and fulfillment, and respectful of other individuals’ wish to do the same. However, early classical liberals like Locke, and neo-liberals like Hayek, believe that individuals are naturally blessed with such qualities, while Mill and modern liberals like Rawls tend to think that such qualities are potential features of human nature, to be developed by enlightened liberal authorities. This is why modern liberals endorse Mill’s concept of individuality — one that refers to what individuals could become, once ‘enabled’ to fulfil their potential. So for example a libertarian might well feel that all humans can be trusted to own guns, use drugs or educate their children. While a modern liberal would suggests that such individual freedoms need to be regulated at least.
Outline tensions across strands in society
Society: classical liberals believe that human society predates the state, while all liberals see society as a collection of diverse and potentially autonomous individuals, seeking self-determination, self-realisation and self-fulfilment. Modern liberals like Rawls, however, believe that industrialised and urban societies are those where individuals are less autonomous and therefore require state support to be free (‘positive liberty’). They would support a Welfare State and social services. Neo-liberals often see society as one where individuals have been damaged or unnecessarily restricted by ‘positive liberty’ and that the ‘dependency culture’ must now be corrected by a radical reduction of the state. Some neo-liberals might see the ideal situation as one where ‘there is no such thing’ as society, just a collection of atomised individuals pursuing self-interest.
Outline tensions within liberalism in terms of the state
The state: all liberals believe that the state should function according to prearranged rules and procedures, with power fragmented and authority subject to the consent of the governed. However, liberals vary on the extent of state activity. Classical liberals like Mill, in accordance with ‘negative’ liberty, believe state intervention should be minimal and individuals left unchecked (unless they hamper the freedom of others). Modern liberals like Friedan, in accordance with the concept of ‘positive liberty’, believe state intervention should be much more extensive so as to ‘enable’ individuals to reach their potential. Liberals have also varied over how democratic the state should be. Modern liberals are satisfied that representative democracy enhances constitutional government, whereas early classical liberals saw democracy as a threat to property rights.
Outline tensions within liberalism in terms of the economy
■ The economy: following Locke’s assertion that property is a ‘natural right’, all liberals believe that the economy should be based on private property and private enterprise. However, while classical liberals and neo-liberals support Adam Smith’s thesis (that the state should adopt a laissez-faire attitude to the economy), modern liberals have more sympathy for the view of John Maynard Keynes (that capitalism requires regular state management to ensure full employment). Modern liberalism’s belief in ‘managed’ capitalism also explains its support for supranational organisations like the European Union, which many neo-liberals see as an obstacle to global free trade.
Outline John Locke (1632-1704) as a key thinker
(CLASSICAL LIBERALISM )Locke was a British political philosopher. In Two Treatises of Government (1690) he argued that the people and their rulers should be subject to restrictions in law. Otherwise, there is no guarantee that the rulers would not abuse the ruled. He supported the concepts of ‘natural’ rights, that everyone is entitled to by virtue of being human, and natural laws, and suggested that governments derive legitimacy from the people, so should respect the people’s natural rights. The social contract is the expression of this idea; that people accept the rule of the government as they know this is the best protection of their rights and interests. The government’s role is to govern in accordance with the people’s wishes, by giving people freedoms as far as possible and promoting toleration. This upholds the key right of freedom. If the government does not do this, the people have the right to disobey or overthrow it. This is the idea of authority based on consent. The government therefore has fiduciary power, meaning there is a measure of trust between the government and the people.
Outline Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) as a Key thinker
(CLASSICAL LIBERALISM) Woolstonecraft was an early feminist writer. In A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) she argued that women were just as rational as men, so were entitled to the same rights. At the time of her writing, women did not enjoy legal independence from men, as their husbands controlled every aspect of their lives. Woolstonecraft argued that women needed formal equality in order to be free and not dependent on men. They should have the same opportunities as men to pursue careers, for example. She wanted women to have a choice, although she did suggest that women were more likely to choose the domestic role, perhaps being influenced by the beliefs of the time she was writing in that women were biologically predisposed to the mothering, nurturing role. Wollstonecraft was a defender of the French Revolution, against the criticisms of Burke and others, in the ‘revolution controversy’ debate, criticising the institution of aristocracy and arguing for republicanism (removal of the monarchy) as the best way of ensuring the rights of individuals were protected.
Outline John Stuart Mill (1906-73) as a key thinker
(CLASSICAL LIBERALISM) Mill argued in On Liberty (1859) that the ‘harm principle’ should guide the actions of government. He argued that ‘self-regarding’ rules (freedoms people should have to do things to themselves) should never be limited. This is because self-regarding actions do not harm other people. ‘Other regarding’ rules (the freedom to do things to others) are actions which can be restricted, but only if they cause harm to others or limit their freedom. Later in life he supported limited state intervention to prevent the poorest from experiencing injustice, for example taxation (which should be the same rate for all- a ‘flat tax’). Therefore, he is seen as a ‘bridge’ between classical and modern liberal thought. He also strongly supported toleration and the right to hold minority views- he suggested that just because a belief was widely supported, that did not make it ‘right’. Some of his views were unconventional for the time, for instance his belief in the complete equality of men and women. He also distinguished between ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ pleasures, higher pleasures being ones which enhance a person’s intellectual development. These were to be preferred over lower pleasures, which Mill criticised as ‘hedonism’- the pursuit of basic sensual self-indulgence.
Outline John Rawls (1806-73) as a key thinker
(MODERN LIBERALISM) Rawls was an American academic. In A Theory of Justice (1971) he argued that the individual rights, freedoms and beliefs of each person must be respected. Therefore, approaches such as utilitarianism (the greatest happiness for the greatest number) are flawed. Excessive inequality should therefore be avoided, as it harms the poorest in society. A just society is one in which each person has an acceptable minimum standard of living. This is based on the ‘veil of ignorance’ scenario, whereby individuals would devise a society in which certain living standards and rights existed for all. They would do this without knowing their own position in that society, so they would naturally want certain basic living conditions in case they found themselves at the bottom. Inequality can only be allowed therefore if it does not make people at the bottom worse and worse off. Rawls rejected the extremes of communism and unregulated capitalism. Later, he suggested that an ‘overlapping consensus’ on the principles of a just society would be sufficient for society to function.
