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A level politics > Liberalism > Flashcards

Liberalism Flashcards

1
Q

What does John Locke believe about human nature?

A
  • Humans are rational beings, guided by self-interest.
  • As rational beings people realise that co-operation with others is in their own best interests.
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2
Q

What does John Rawls believe about human nature?

A
  • Saw the empathetic side of human nature to a greater degree than earlier liberal thinkers.
  • Saw humans as self-interested but also concerned about the welfare of those around them.
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3
Q

What does Betty Friedan believe about human nature?

A
  • Women and men are equally capable, however society has conditioned women to think of themselves as inferior.
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4
Q

What does John Locke believe about the society?

A
  • Society predates the state = government by consent
    -In the ‘state of nature’ there are natural rights and laws which derive from humans’ rational nature, e.g. the right to own property.
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5
Q

What does John Rawls believe about society?

A
  • Put forward a ‘thought experiment’ arguing that if individuals had to choose a society from behind a ‘veil of ignorance’, they would choose a fairer, more equal society, which ensured equality of opportunity.
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6
Q

What does Betty Friedan believe about society?

A

-Traditional society has conditioned women to adopt certain gender roles, e.g. childcare and home-making.

-This cultural conditioning has been communicated through social channels eg. media and must be challenged.

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7
Q

What does John Locke believe about the state

A

-The state exists as the result of a ‘social contract’ between citizens and the government.
-The legitimacy of the state derives from the ‘government by consent’.
- mechanist theory = people are capable of forming a state that reflects their needs instead of an authoritarian state
- Argues limited government, laissez-faire economics

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8
Q

What does John Rawls believe about the state?

A

-He was a strong advocate of the enabling state, arguing that intervention is necessary in order to create equality of opportunity
- Government should support people from ‘cradle to grave’
- this allows people to get positive freedom = the ability to achieve

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9
Q

What does Betty Friedan believe about the state?

A

-The state is male-dominated but is capable of change if people can be educated to realise the fundamental equality of men and women.

-The state should pass laws to bring about greater equality. - affirmative action is necessary

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10
Q

What does John Locke believe about the economy?

A

-Property ownership is the basis of the economy and individuals should be free to trade in the pursuit of their own interests.
-The state should protect property rights

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11
Q

What does John Rawls believe about the economy?

A
  • Comfortable with the capitalist economy alongside state intervention to ensure poorer citizens can have equality of opportunity (but not equality of outcome).
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12
Q

What does Betty Friedan believe about the economy?

A
  • Women are capable of making significant contributions to the capitalist economy if they are freed up by new laws to overcome the historical gender bias.
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13
Q

What type of liberalists were the 5 key thinkers?

A

JS Mill = later classical liberalism
Betty Friedan = Modern liberalism
Mary Wollstonecraft = early classical liberalism
John Locke =
John Rawls =modern liberalism

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14
Q

What does John Locke argue about egotistical individualism?

A
  • Humans are naturally drawn to the advancements of their own and the pursuit of their own happiness
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15
Q

What do neo-liberalists believe about keynesianism economics?

A
  • we need an economic system that requires government involvement to achieve full employment and price stability
  • readvertised negative freedom and minimal state
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16
Q

What is neo-liberalism?

A

a modified form of liberalism tending to favor free-market capitalism.

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17
Q

What is the Beveridge Report?
What does neo-liberalist Hayek say about this?

A
  • 1942
  • talked about the state supporting the people from cradle to grave
  • Hayek said this was a form of state paternalism
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18
Q

What is Social Darwinism?

A

The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle.

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19
Q

What is equality of opportunity?

A
  • all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall
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20
Q

Why do social liberals put forward positive freedom?

A

positive freedom = enlarged state where the most vulnerable in society can be protected

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21
Q

Why do classical liberals such as T.H Green put forward negative freedom?

A

negative freedom = harm principle and limited role of the state.

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22
Q

How can limitations on individual freedom be justified?

A

Locke’s social contract theory - Gov can act on behalf of the people because they chose them.

Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism - actions are morally right if they tend to promote happiness or pleasure, actions therefore limited are in benefit for society by the state

TH Green’s negative freedom - laws to prevent discrimination, FGM etc are good even though they limit freedom

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23
Q

Rawls view on the individual freedom

A

he argued that the individual rights, freedoms and beliefs of each person must be respected. Therefore, approaches such as utilitarianism (the greatest happiness for the greatest number) are flawed. Excessive inequality should therefore be avoided, as it harms the poorest in society

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24
Q

Friedan view on individual freedom

A

She wished to reform society so that women were able to easily choose either a career or a domestic role, depending on what they wanted. This would result in true equal rights. Any laws which prevented this should be repealed.

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25
Q

Locke view on individual freedom

A

concepts of ‘natural’ rights, that everyone is entitled to by virtue of being human, and natural laws, and suggested that governments derive legitimacy from the people, so should respect the people’s natural rights.

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26
Q

What did Locke believe about the state?

A

The state must be representative, based on consent (government by consent)

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27
Q

What did Locke believe society?

A

Society predates the state- a ‘state of nature’

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28
Q

What is the ‘state of nature’?

A

A life where men and women functioned without government, written laws, or any formal restraints

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29
Q

What did Locke believe about the ‘state of nature’?

A

Locke believed that because people are rational, they would be respectful of others in a state of nature, and therefore without a government there would be peace and harmony

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30
Q

Why did Locke believe the state was necessary?

A

Locke firmly believed that we need a state to protect our freedom and property- a stateless society is one in which we would be devoid of freedom “where laws do not exist, man has no freedom.”

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31
Q

What did Locke believe that the role of the state was? (2)

A

The role of the state is to protect individual property and to prevent chaos and anarchy

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32
Q

What was the mechanical theory, and how did it apply to Locke?

A

This is the theory that Locke supported- which said that mankind is rational and therefore capable of devising a state that reflects mankind’s needs

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33
Q

What is the ‘social contract’ and what does it create? (locke)

A

The social contract outlines that the state is obliged to protect its citizens whilst citizens in turn must accept the laws of the land (creates a government by consent)

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34
Q

How do individuals consent to a government? (2)

A
  1. Formal- the government seeks a mandate from the people during a nationwide election, so it is legitimate
  2. Informal- consent could be taken as assumed from the general behaviour of the people and the absence of major social disorder
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35
Q

What did Locke believe about the economy?

A

Individuals have a ‘natural right’ to private property, and the state should respect

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36
Q

When are individuals entitled to withdraw their consent for the government?

A

If the state were to act in violation of the contract, the people are entitled to withdraw their consent

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37
Q

Name one of Locke’s work, and what it outlined:

A

The Two Treatises of Government 1632-1704- outlined the need for a state to protect individual rights and property

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38
Q

What did J.S. Mills believe that the role of the state was, and what did he believe that the state was not to do?

A

Mill believed that the role of the state is to prevent harm to others, and not to interfere for an individuals ‘own good’

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39
Q

When did J.S. Mills believe that people can be held accountable to society?

A

When their actions have concerned/harmed others

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40
Q

Wat type of liberty did J.S. Mills believe in, and what was this?

A

Negative liberty- freedom from interference by other people (individuals should be left alone, to pursue their destiny)

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41
Q

What types of actions did J.S. Mills accept, and what were these?

A

Self-regarding actions- actions that affects no one other/doesn’t interfere with anyone other than the agent

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42
Q

What did J.S. Mills believe about diverse ideas, and why did he believe this?

A

Mills argued that diverse ideas should be tolerated- because this tolerance would ensure that new ideas emerged, and that all opinions would be heard via a rational debate, in order to avoid a tyranny of the majority

43
Q

What did J.S. Mills believe about human nature?

A

Mills believed that human nature isn’t fixed and that humans are never the ‘finished article’- there’s always room for improvement and room for progression

44
Q

Why was J.S. Mills concerned about the government by consent?

A

Mills was concerned that a ‘government by consent’ would be compromised if the wishes of some individual citizens were overwhelmed by the wishes of most individuals

45
Q

What did J.S. Mills believe about society?

A

Mills believed that the best societies were ones were individuality co-existed with tolerance (heavy emphasis on a society and individualism)

46
Q

What did J.S. Mills believe about individualism?

A

Mills believed in developmental individualism

47
Q

What is developmental individualism?

A

This is a type of individualism which focuses on what humans could become, rather than what they had become- allows individuals’ potential to progress

48
Q

Why did Mills believe in developmental individualism?

A

Mills believed in developmental individualism because he thought that man was progressive, and would therefore want to seek out higher pleasures e.g. arts

49
Q

What does developmental individualism, and therefore Mills, favour and why?

A

Developmental individualism favours universal and widespread education, as these would promote political education and opportunities for enlightening debate

50
Q

What did J.S. Mills believe about the state?

A

The state should be minimal, but should provide essential welfare services (e.g. education) and some level of wealth distribution, in order to proceed towards a representative democracy

51
Q

Why did J.S. Mills believe in a representative democracy?

A

As Mills believed in developmental individualism, he believed that universal education was necessary for human progression, and that this level of education would lead to the enlarged electorate electing liberally minded representatives to make decisions for them

52
Q

Why didn’t J.S. Mills believe in a direct democracy?

A

`Mills believed a direct democracy would create tyranny of the majority

53
Q

Who didn’t Mills believe should be able to vote, and why?

A

Paupers, bankrupts, illiterates and non-tax payers- as they weren’t well-educated enough to pick intelligent representatives

54
Q

What did J.S. Mills believe about the economy?

A

Mills believed that laissez-faire capitalism was essential for progress and individualism

55
Q

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about human nature?

A

She believed human beings were rational and guided by reason- both men and women

56
Q

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about women’s equality, and what did she believe this did?

A

Wollstonecraft believed that women’s equality was being denied and that this went against the core ideas of liberalism- equality for all

57
Q

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about women’s liberty, and what did she believe this would result in?

A

Females were denied their liberty, which left society vulnerable

58
Q

What was, according to Mary Wollstonecraft, suppressing women’s liberties? (3)

A
  • Women were rarely allowed land ownership or employment,
  • they couldn’t vote for those who governed them
  • and once married, women also had little legal protection against marital violence
59
Q

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about education?

A

She believed it should be accessible to all

60
Q

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe had caused women to fall into a position where their liberty etc. was denied? (2)

A
  1. Women have a ‘neglected education’, which renders them weak and retched, as they have to gather knowledge from books written by men
  2. Women are seen by men to be ‘alluring objects’
61
Q

Name one of Mary Wollstonecraft’s work:

A

‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’

62
Q

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about the state?

A

She believed the monarchical state should be replaced by a republic which enshrines women’s rights

63
Q

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about the economy?

A

She believed that once liberated, women would energise the free-market economy

64
Q

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about society?

A

She believed that as society ‘infantilized’ women, it stifled female individualism

65
Q

What did Betty Friedan believe about human nature?

A

Human nature has evolved in such a way that it has discouraged the self-advancement of women

66
Q

What did Betty Friedan believe about the state? (+ what type of state)

A

She believed that the state should legislate to prevent continued discrimination against females (positive discrimination) -an enabling state

67
Q

What is positive discrimination, and what individual promoted its use?

A

Positive discrimination is where a group, that has been known to have been discriminated against, is favoured- Friedan

68
Q

How did Friedan say positive discrimination could be achieved, and what would this do?

A

Through a national education programme which would give women subsidies and childcare- to allow them to continue their education on a part-time basis

69
Q

What type of liberal is Betty Friedan, and what does this mean?

A

Friedan is a social liberalist- which means that she believed that the state should take steps to enable women to progress (an enabling state and affirmative action)

70
Q

What did Betty Friedan believe about society? (what had society caused?)

A

Friedan argued that the illiberal attitude in society which condemned women to underachievement, despite them being just as capable as men in terms of performing any type of work or career path

71
Q

What did Betty Friedan believe about the economy?

A

Free-market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation, if coupled with legislation

72
Q

What did John Rawls believe about human nature?

A

Mankind is selfish yet empathetic, valuing both individual liberty an the plight of those around them

73
Q

What did John Rawls believe about the state? (+what type of state)

A

The state should enable the less fortunate individuals to advance, via public spending and services (an enabling state)

74
Q

What did John Rawls believe about society?

A

Society should be revolved around improving the condition of the poorest

75
Q

What did John Rawls believe about the economy?

A

Free-market capitalism should be tempered by the state’s obligation to advance its poorest citizens

76
Q

In liberalism, what type of approach does the state have to the economy

A

A laissez-faire approach (non-governmental interference)

77
Q

What did John Rawls believe the state should do to aid the less fortunate?

A

Redistribute wealth

78
Q

What is the general liberal belief about human nature?

A

Humans have logic, calculation and deduction, and can therefore function peacefully without a state- but are naturally egotistical

79
Q

What is the general liberal belief about the state and economy?

A

Liberals believe a laissez faire government and capitalism is suitable for society

80
Q

Liberals believe in equality of…

A

Opportunity

81
Q

What do classical liberals believe about the state?

A

It should be minimal- they are opposed to an expansion in the role of the state

82
Q

What places classical liberalism under threat?

A

The industrial revolution- the working class developed class consciousness

83
Q

What were modern liberals against?

A

Free-market capitalism, as they believed this had led to many individuals not being free

84
Q

What type of economy do modern liberals prefer?

A

Keynesian economics- a mixed economy

85
Q

What type of freedom did modern liberals believe in, and what was this?

A

Positive freedom- the state enabling people and allowing them to obtain the ability to push themselves and progress

86
Q

Name two classical liberals:

A

Locke and Mill

87
Q

What role did classical liberals believe the state should have?

A

Classical liberalists argue that the role of the state should be strictly limited to maintaining law and order and securing society from invasion

88
Q

What type of society did Locke and Mill believe would be beneficial for society?

A

Locke and Mill- individuals thrive best in a society with a small, limited state where they can enjoy negative freedom with minimal interference

89
Q

Why did Rawls and Green disagree with negative freedom?

A

They argued that negative freedom exacerbates societal inequalities as the state does nothing to help the disadvantaged individual

90
Q

What type of state do modern liberals prefer?

A

An enabling state

91
Q

Name three modern liberal policies, and why they were modern liberal:

A
  1. New Deal- maximum state intervention, to restore the economy- rather than let it fix itself after the economic depression and unemployment
  2. The Beveridge Report- created the NHS and a welfare state (an enabling state)
92
Q

What type of equality did Rawls believe in, and what was this?

A

Foundational equality- individuals needed equality under the law and constitution, as well as socially and economically, to ensure that all lives could be rich and fulfilled

93
Q

How did Rawls believe that foundational equality could be achieved?

A

Significant redistribution of wealth via an enabling state, with extensive public spending and progressive taxation

94
Q

What is Keynesian economics and how is it a liberal policy?

A

Keynesian Economics focuses on using active government policy to manage aggregate demand in order to address or prevent economic recessions- requires an enabling state

95
Q

What is social liberalism?

A

The belief that society can be improved through liberalism, and that there should be economic and social state intervention- the state should legislate on these issues

95
Q

What is the main belief of social liberalists?

A

A belief in tolerance

96
Q

What type of economy do neo-liberalists tend to favour?

A

Free-market capitalist economy, with low taxation and low public spending

97
Q

What type of state do neo-liberalists tend to favour? (+ phrase)

A

Minimal state- ‘rolling back the frontiers’

98
Q

What is neo-liberalism?

A

A type of liberalism which favours a minimal state and free-market economy (laissez-faire)

99
Q

What is a free-market economy?

A

An unregulated economy, where there is minimal state interference into the market- the market is left to function on its own and without regulation

100
Q

Liberals have an … view of human nature

A

Liberals have an … view of human nature

101
Q

What is the harm principle, and how does it apply to liberalism?

A

The harm principle holds that the actions of individuals should only be limited to prevent harm to other individuals- liberals use this as a measure of the role of the state (J.S. Mills)

102
Q

What did Green believe that the role of the state should be?

A

The role of the state should be at a maximum (enabling state)- and should be exercised to relieve poverty and to develop individuals

103
Q

What did Green argue about the state?

A

Green argued that without state intervention into e.g. housing, education and health, then society would remain to be unfair and unjust

A level politics (31 decks)

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