Liberalism Flashcards
(36 cards)
is the influence of liberalism growing?
According to the UN, 2/3 of states across the globe may now be classed as “liberal democracies”- a seven fold increase since 1945
In the UK and USA, being liberal is seen as being at odds with the values of conservatism and closer to socialism, hence why H. Clinton and sanders are in the same party.
what is the origin of liberalism?
The roots of the ideology can be seen in the reformation, the enlightenment extended the religious ideas of that time into political and secular spheres.
The ideas of individualism extended from the enlightenment period, Locke began to question the relationship between individuals and the government- seeking to define just why and how individuals should defer to those who govern them. At that time the belief that the natural rulers were monarchial began to change.
Locke and other key enlightenment thinkers believed that human beings were uniquely endowed with the power of logic, calculation and deduction.
For them, it was logical that human beings should create a political system that was based upon reason.
key thinker John Locke
He is seen to be the father of the liberal ideology, his book the two treaties of Government was regarded as the cornerstone of liberal thought.
He is also key to classical liberalism.
Locke denied that the traditional, medieval bellied that the state was part of God’s creation and the divine right of monarchs, he rejected that ordinary people were subject of the state. He argued that the true state would be created by mankind.
He believed that prior to the existence of the state there was a “natural” society that served mankind well, he described this as a “state of nature”
he had an upbeat view of HN and be believed that the state of nature was underpinned by “natural laws and liberties and rights”.
The “state of law” was designed to resolve disputes more efficiently than would be the case under the state of nature. He believed that the state of law would only be respected if the natural aspects of the state were respected.
Locke also believe that its “citizens had voluntarily consented to accept the rulings of the state in return for the state improving their situation”.
The state would also have to represent a limited government, requiring the consent of being governed.
This would be seen by the dispersal of power as the legislative and executive branch were separate.
how does the state view human nature?
Liberalism denies the bleak view of humanism, it believes that liberalism has the ability to bring about progress and the ability for humans to bring about progress
liberals believe that mankind’s innate reason is manifested in debate, discussion and peaceful argument and the measured examination of ideas and opinions- rather than simply accepting what life offers
for liberals, the problems of humans are simply challenges, humans can forge their own lives. they believe that rationality is essential to HN, they also assume that reasoned discussion leads to consensus.
for liberals, humans are naturally sed seeking and self serving- hence their belief in egotistical liberalism, where they are naturally drawn to better their own destiny.
Liberals claim that individuals are both egotistical and reasonable, making them sensitive to the perspectives of others. Forliberals, humans are self-aware and seek peace, harmony and understanding.
how do liberals view society?
for liberals there is a natural state that precedes that state that we know today, this state is said to be pleasant.
John Stuart Mill emphasised that the main purpose of any civilised society is to facilitate individualism. in this view liberals argue that each individual is unique, they are rational in the pursuit of their interests and that humans are egotistical- therefore, each human seeks freedom. For Mill, this meant freedom from any dependency on others and the freedom to live one’s life in a way that maximises self-reliance and self-fulfilment. Liberals believe that the key focus of any society should be the individual. Any society that denies such is dysfunctional.
Locke described that the “right” to property is “that with which a man mixed his labour”, for later liberals, like Mills property is seen as the “prism” through which humans develop their potential, providing an opportunity for men and women to nurture their taste and judgement.
how do liberals view the economy?
They have a devotion to private property, they believe that property is a natural right and they support an economy that puts this as the forefront of the agenda.
Ever since the work of Adam Smith, liberalism has been strongly associated with private ownership and the economy. This is a key difference between liberalism and socialism. Liberals will always support a market-based economy.
Liberalism’s view on individualism means that their view on the economy is linked to that. Adam Smith stated that the obstacles to free trade swept away the “invisible hand” of market forces, the idea that everyone would get some wealth. Smith was asserting the optimistic view of liberals and the economy.
How do liberals view the state?
Liberals belief that individualism and capitalism work best when accompanied by a state, this is the difference between liberals and anarchists.
the origins of the liberal state
With liberals having an optimistic view of human nature it was felt, by key figures such as Locke that the state provided a formal structure that would help with clashes such as property
the significance of the liberal state and objectives
Locke and key figures were keen to show that their state had to embody certain principles
the rejection of the traditional state
this is the state that is founded by monarchial rule, renounces the state were power is concentrated
They would not believe in a “divine” right
Government by consent
Governments must have the consent to govern
promotion of individualism
this is the view that humans have “natural rights”, it would be irrational for these to be abandoned.
promotion of tolerance
Liberals believe in a tolerance towards those who excercise their natural rights, this was developed by Mill who states that the state should tolerate all actions and opinions unless they were shown to violate the harm principle. It has been suggested that individuals seek to be in communities that promote individualistic values. For example the state should show tolerance towards religious communities. Locke was keen for there to be a tolerance towards Catholics. In recent centuries this has extended towards the tolerance of minorities.
meritocracy
Political power should only be displayed by those who are worthy of it, Governments should have won the trust to be governed. This works against the idea that power is hereditary and aristocratic. Locke and Mill believed that this had no place in their meritocracy.
Equality of opportunity and justice
There is the foundation belief that humans are born equal, all individuals must have equal opportunity and if one fails to fulfil their potential then they must accept that. This is linked to the liberal idea of justice, there must be an expectation that individuals will be treated fairly so they can assume a just outcome.
what are the methods and structures within a liberal state
a constitutional/limited government: this is in keeping with the focus on rationalism- the constitution will limit a government. This means that they govern based on pre-arranged rules and that they prevent governments from eroding their natural rights
fragmented government- this is the separation of powers
formal equality- there is an emphasis of the “rule of law”
what were the distinctive features of early classical liberalism?
revolutionary potential
negative liberty
minimal state
laissez-faire capitalism.
the revolutionary potential of early classical liberalism?
The Locke idea that there should be government by consent and this, in the context of the 17th and 18th century had the potential for revolutionary upheaval. Locke’s ideas became synonymous with the glorious revolution of 1688.
The core liberal principle of rationalism was far from being accepted by the 18th century. Wollstonecraft would argue that the treatment of women during this time would go against any idea of logic- believing that women were only seen as people that were suitable for marriage. Women were in the state of “listless inactivity”
She would also argue that women and men required a formal education to release their powers for reason and this was not accepted at the time.
classical liberalism and negative liberty?
Voltaire and Montesquieu were conscious that individual liberty was vital to self-determination and reliance and being a key condition to government by consent. Wollstonecraft also tried to relate such ideas to the liberty of women.
Though, there was the need to define liberty, negative liberty was seen as one which saw freedoms as the absence of restraint. Inidividuals should assume that they are naturally free, until someone put a break on their actions
Though, for classical liberals this would have consequences for both the size of the state and the science of economics.
key thinker- Wollstonecraft
She developed the classical liberal idea in the 18th century, a vindication of the rights of woman (1792), classic of political thought and is linked to feminist ideology.
Her primary aim was that the optimistic view of humans that the enlightenment offered was reciprocated to both men and women. Women during this period weren’t exactly equal to men.
Though, she was not a direct spokesperson of women’s interests and argued that fettering female individualism limited their intelligence and morality.
She welcomed both the American and French Revolution.
She argued that for women to move away from desiring just marriage, they should receive a formal education.
the later development of classical liberalism.
Bentham developed the alternative to the “natural rights” theory, he argued that the state needed to be more proactive and that in the state of industrialisation there was the potential of clashes to take place. He laid the foundations of “political science”
Smiles saw that industrialised communities made it harder for people to be self-reliant, with people just being faceless in the factories. Though, he argued that the challenge would allow humans to become more developed, he argued that humans would remain “stunted”.
Spencer also acknowledged the importance of self-help, though he was also aware of the “feeble” in Victorian cities. There became the theory of social darwinism.
The importance of the said people were limited by Mill.
He updated the view of Locke and the representative democracy, noting that those elected officials should side with the broader view. He would encourage people to rebut the “direct democracy”
key ideas of Mill
Mill was concerned that during the 18th century a number of voters would be ill-equipped to choose an adequate option. He noted that universal education should precede universal suffrage. He believed that this would promote developmental individualism. He believed that once education had been secured the ideas of liberalism could advance further.
Though, he was vague as to how this would be provided as he was a supporter of the minimal state.
Key thinker John Stuart Mill
he provided a bridge between modern and classical liberalism.
He was known for the term “negative freedom”- this was the idea that an individuals actions should always be tolerated unless it could harm others.
Mill divided humans into “self-regarding” and “other regarding”, the former did not harm people and the latter did.
He had more defined arguments than the classical liberals he saw “liberty” as not just the natural right but the engine of ongoing human development.
He believed in “individuality”- this affected his view of government by consent as he was concerned that the views of a few could affect the views of many. This would become known as the tyranny of the majority.
is liberal democracy a contradiction in terms?
YES:
democracy tends to be guided by majorities- can threaten with the “tyranny of the majority”
Mill thought votes should be given only to those with an appropriate education
Modern liberals like to engage with bodies such as the EU
NO:
democracy complements individualism allowing individuals to shape their lives via the ballot box
democracy complements “government by consent”
Mill thought democracy would have an “educative effect”
